S  j^JN  LJBRARY-AGRiqULTURE  DEFT. 


The 
Poultry  man's  Handbook 

A  CONVENIENT  REFERENCE  BOOK 

For  All  Persons  Interested  in  the 

Production  of  Eggs  and  Poultry  for  Market 

and  the  Breeding  of  Standard-Bred 

Poultry  for  Exhibition 


BY 

International  Correspondence  Schools 

SCRANTON,  PA. 


2nd  Edition,  38th  Thousand,  8th  Impression 


SCRANTON,  PA. 
INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 

1920 


(f>/ 

/ 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  1920,  BY 
INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


MAIN  LIBRAE  "^FNCULTURE:  DEFT. 


PRESS  OF 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 
SCRANTON,  PA. 

76519 


PREFACE 

This  handbook  is  intended  as  a  book  of  refer- 
ence for  poultrymen  generally.  The  publishers 
have  not  attempted  to  produce  a  condensed  cyclo- 
pedia covering  the  broad  field  of  poultry  hus- 
bandry, but  they  have  aimed  to  present  to  the 
public  a  handy  reference  book  convenient  to  carry 
in  the  pocket — a  pocketbook  in  reality — and  con- 
taining such  information  as  is  most  often  needed 
by  poultrymen  who  handle  fowls  commercially 
in  large  numbers,  by  persons  who  keep  a  few 
fowls  in  the  back  yard,  and  by  breeders  who  aim 
to  produce  poultry  of  the  best  quality  for  exhi- 
bition. -Although  the  treatment  of  some  subjects 
is  of  necessity  brief,  it  has  been  the  aim  so  to 
distribute  the  space  available  that  it  would  cover 
the  more  important  subjects  as  fully  as  possible. 

The  more  important  poultry  foods  are  briefly 
described  and  discussed,  and  sample  rations  are 
given  for  the  feeding  of  fowls,  chicks,  turkeys, 
guinea  fowls,  pheasants,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons, 
etc.  Much  useful  information  in  regard  to  incu- 
bation and  brooding  is  given.  Eggs  and  market 
poultry,  the  various  methods  of  breeding,  and  the 
enemies  and  diseases  of  poultry  are  discussed, 


469891 


iv  PREFACE 

and  the  insecticides  and  remedies  for  poultry  are 
given.  The  various  methods  of  poultry  judging 
are  explained  and  samples  of  the  various  score 
cards  shown. 

The  glossary  of  technical  terms  is  a  feature 
that  will  be  appreciated  by  poultry  fanciers,  as  it 
is  one  of  the  most  complete  that  has  ever  been 
compiled.  The  book  closes  with  several  pages  of 
miscellaneous  information,  which  will  be  found 
of  general  interest. 

This  handbook  was  prepared  under  the  per- 
sonal supervision  of  Thomas  F.  McGrew,  Prin- 
cipal of  the  School  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  as- 
sisted by  A.  F.  Stokes  and  H.  D.  Boone. 

INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS 
SCRANTON,  PA. 

June, 


INDEX 


Age   of  fowls,   How   to   as- 
certain, 241 
Aid   to   the   injured,    First, 

.  330 
Ailments     and     treatment, 

186 

Alfalfa,  53 

American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion show  rules,  203 
standard     of     perfection, 

208 
Angles    or    arcs,    Measures 

.of.  292 
Animal    foods    for   poultry, 

54 
Animals       destructive       of 

poultry,   177 
Anniversaries,     Names     of 

wedding,  314 

Apothecaries'      fluid     mea- 
sure,  290 

weight,  Table  of,  289 
Apples,  50 
Arithmetic,  287 
Artificial   light  to  increase 

egg  production,   150 
respiration,  332,  341 
Avoirdupois  weight,   Table 
of,  288 

B 

Baffler,  Cornell  wind,  15 

Bale,  299 

Bands  for  marking  poultry, 

Bantams,  Houses  for,  23 
Barley,  44 

Barrel,  Cu.  ft.   in,  309 
of    flour,    pork,    or    beef, 

Weight  of,  290 
Barron  method  of  selecting 

layers,   149 
Beans, -45 
Beets,  48 


Bins,   Measurement  of,  309 
Birds  and  fish,  Care  of,  315 
destructive      to     poultry, 
,  178 

Birthday     stone     for    each 

month   in   the   year,   314 

Black    Orpington,     Picture 

of,   121 

Bleeding,  Treatment  of,  334 
Board  measure,  306 
Boiling  point  of  water,  298 
Bone  for  poultry   food,  55 
Books,  Size  of,  299 
Breeding,  160 

Breeds    and    standard    and 

non-standard     varieties 

of  poultry,  210 

Brickwork  estimations,  308 

British    thermal    unit     (B. 

T.  U.),  296 
Broilers        and       roasters, 

Classes  of,  156 
and    roasters,    Time     re- 
quired to   raise,   156 
Feeding  of  chicks  for,  7S 
Bronchitis,    Treatment    of, 

187 
Brooding  of  chicks,  108 

Points   in   successful,   112 
Broom  corn.  44 
B.  T.  U.,  296 
Buckwheat,  44 
Bumblefoot,   Treatment  of. 

190 

Bundle,  299 

Burns,  Treatment  of,  340 
Bushel,  Cu.  in.  in,  309 
Legal  weights  of  various 

commodities  per,  245 
pounds  in,  290 
Business,  Rules  of,  316 

C 

Cabbage,   49 

Calcimining  estimations,302 


vi 


INDEX 


Calendar    for    the    poultry- 
man's  year,  233 
California,    Housing    prob- 
lems in,  31 
Calorie,  296 
Canary  seed,  48 
Capacities  of  bins,  cisterns, 

etc.,   309 
Capacity,  Measures  of,  289 

Metric   measures   of,  293 
Care    and    preservation    of 

eggs,   129 

of  birds  and  fish,  315 
Carpeting  estimations,  305 
Carrots,   50 

Casks,  Gauging  of,  310 
Catching  and  holding  pig- 
eons, Proper  way  of,  244 
Cement  floor,  12 
Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit 

degrees,  297,  298 
Certificate  of  deposit,  318 
Charcoal,  57 
Checks,  317 
Chicken  pox,  Treatment  of, 

190 

Chicks,  Brooding  of,  108 
Feeding  of  young,  66 
for  broilers,    Feeding   of, 

75 
Circular  measure,  Table  of, 

292 
Cisterns,    Measurement   of, 

309 
Classes     of     broilers     and 

roasters,    156 
of  market  poultry,  154 
Cleansing       mixture        for 

hens,    78 
Clover,  53 

Coal,  Volume  of  1  ton,  310 
Coins  of  the  United  States, 

294 

Color  of  eggshell,  114 
Comparison  of  poultry  and 
certain  other  foods,  153 
score  card,  196 
Composition  of  eggs,  114 
of  eggs  and  certain  other 

foods,   116 
of  foods,  34 


Compound  interest,  Years 
at  which  a  given 
amount  will  double,  322 

Conversion  of  thermometer 
readings,  298 

Cord  of  wood,  301 

Corn,  42 
Broom,  44 
Kafir,  43 

Cornell     feeding    schedule, 

method  for  judging  fowls 
for  egg  production,  143 

Correspondence,    326 

Cottonseed  meal,  47 

Cross-breeding,  162 

Cubic  measure,  Table  of, 
288 

D 

Degrees,  Centigrade  and 
Fahrenheit,  297,  298 

Diarrhea,  Treatment  of,  188 

Difference  of  sun  time  be- 
tween New  York  City 
and  other  parts  of  the 
world,  300 

Discount  rates,  321 

Diseases,   180 
and    enemies    of   poultry, 

163 

and  treatment,  186 
Fundamental       principles 

of  treatment  of,  182 
of   legs    and   feet,   Treat- 
ment of,  189 

of  the  intestines,  Treat- 
ment of,  187 

Dislocations  and  sprains, 
340 

Distances     and     time     by 

postal  routes,  311 
Measures  of,  301 

Dorking,  Picture  of,  152 

Dozen,  298 

Drafts,  320 

Drawn-weight  value  com- 
pared with  live  and 
plucked  weight,  159 

Dressing  fowls,  Loss  of 
weight  in,  154 


INDEX 


Drowned    persons,    Restpr- 
ing  of  apparently,  341 
Dry  mash,  71 

Eggs,  Testing  fertility  of,  95 
Relation  of  weight  of,  to 
egg  production,  119 

measure,  290 

Uses  of,  114 

Ducks,  Feeding  of,  80 

Washing  of,  118 

Due  bill,  320 

Weight  of,  115 

Eggshells,  Color  of,  114 

E 

Electric    shock,    Treatment 

Egg  and  fowl,  Composition 
of,  64 

of,  337 
Embryo,     Development     of 

crop,    Percentage    of   loss 

the,  95 

of  total,  118 

Enemies    and    diseases    of 

eating    in    fowls,    Treat- 

poultry, 163 

ment  of,  190 

English   money,  295 

prices,  140 
production,       Artificial 

English      money,      Equiva- 
lent     of,      in      United 

light  to  increase,  150 

States  coinage,  295 

production,  Barron  meth- 

od   of    selecting    layers 

F 

for,  149 
production  in  the  United 

Fahrenheit   and  centigrade 
degrees,  297,  298 

States,  3 
production,  Judging  fowls 
for,  by  Cornell  method, 
143 

Fainting,  Treatment  of,  331 
Farm  flocks,  Judging,  197 
Feeding  mixtures,   Special, 

77 

production,   Monthly  rec- 

of chicks  for  broilers,  75 

ords  of,  122 

of  ducks,  80 

production,     Relation    of, 

of  fowls,'  63 

to  season,  120 
production,      Selecting 

of  fowls  during  molt,  74 
of  geese,  84 

hens  for,  142 

of  guinea  fowls,  79 

receipts    in    seven    large 

of  laying  hens,  69 

cities,   5 
Eggs     and     certain     other 
foods,    Composition    of, 

of  pheasants,  79 
of  pigeons,  85 
of  turkeys,  78 

116 

of  young  chicks,  66 

Care  and  preservation  of, 

of  wild  water  fowls,  85 

129 
Composition   of,   114 

schedule,  Cornell,  67 
the  sitting  hen,  92 

Food  value  of,  114 
for    hatching,     Care    and 

Feedstuffs,  Composition  of, 
37 

selection  of,  98,  99 
Grades  of,  123 

Fertility   of  eggs,  Testing, 
qc 

Judging,  138 
Official     score     card    for, 
139 

yj 
First  aid  to  the  injured,  330 
Fish  and  birds,  Care  of,  315 

Packages  and  packing  of, 
128 

Flaxseed,  46 
Floor  space  for  fowls,  11 

Preserving  of,  134 

Floors   and  their  construc- 

Price of,  5 

tion,  11 

Quality  of,  132 

Food  required  by  one  hen 

Standards  for,  123 

in  a  year,  73" 

viii 


INDEX 


Foods  for  poultry,  Animal. 

54 

Green,  51 

per  quart,   Weight   of,   65 
Poisonous,  58 
Poultry,  34 

Foreign  money,  Equivalent 
of,     in     United     States 
coinage,  296 
Fowl  and  egg,  Composition 

of,  64 
Names    of    parts    of,    144, 

257 

Fowls,  Feeding  of,  63 
How  to  ascertain  age  of, 

241 

Internal   organs  of,  59 
Marking  of,  226 
Fractures,  338 
Freezing    point     of    water, 

298 

Fumigating    and    cleansing 
poultry  houses,  175 


Gallon,  Cu.  in.  in,  309 
Gapes,  Treatment  of,  187 
Gauging  of  casks,  310 
Geese,  Feeding  of,  84 
Glossary  of  technical  terms 
used  by  poultrymen,  256 
Grading  of  eggs,  123 
Grains    and   seeds,    Compo- 
sition of,  37 
Green  crops.  Miscellaneous, 

54 

foods,  51 
Grit,  57 
Gross,  298 

Guinea   fowls,    Feeding   cf, 
79 

H 

Hatching,  Rules  for,  105 
Hawks,  178 

Hay,  Bulk  of  1  ton,  310 
Heat,  296 
exhaustion,  Treatment  of, 

340 

units,   296 

Hemorrhage,  Treatment  of, 
334 


Hemp  seed,  47 

Hens,    Feeding    of    laying, 

69 

for  sitting,  89 
Names    of    parts    of,    144, 

257 

Hogshead,  Cu.  ft.  in.,  309 
Holding    of    fowls,    Proper 

way  of,  242 
of  squabs,  Proper  way  of, 

243 

Holidays,  Legal,  323 
Houdan,   Picture  of,   158 
House,  Method  of  ridding, 

of  parasites,  175 
Unit,  27 

Houses  and  yards   for  dif- 
ferent varieties,  21 
for  bantams,  23 
Form     and     arrangement 

of,  16 

Position  for  poultry,   15 
Poultry,   7 

Housing  problems  in  Cali- 
fornia,  31 


Ice,  Melting  point  of,  298 
Inbreeding,  161 
Incubation,   86 
Artificial,  97 
Factors      that      influence 

sucess  in,  106 
Natural,  87 
Period  of,  93 
Incubators,    100 
and   brooders,   Mammoth, 

113 

Indian  Runner  drake,  Pic- 
ture of,  237 
Insecticides,    165 
Fume,  172 

Instruments     for     apply- 
ing, 173 
Instruments     for     applying 

insecticides,   173 
Interest  rules,  Simple,  321 
Years   in   which    a   given 
amount  will  double   at, 
322 

Internal    organs    of    fowls, 
59 


INDEX 


ix 


Judging  eggs,  138 
fowls  for  egg  production, 

Cornell    method    of,    143 
of    farm    flocks    at    fairs 

and  shows,  197 
of  poultry,  191 

K 

Kafir  corn,  43 

Killing     and     plucking     of 


poultry,  157 
of  parasites,  174 


Layers,    Barron   method   of 

selecting,    149 
Cornell    method   of   judg- 
ing for,  143 
Laying      hens,      Cleansing 

mixture  for,  78 
hens,   Feeding  of,  69 
Legal  holidays,  323 
weights     per     bushel     of 
various  commodities,  245 
Length,  Measures  of,  287 
Metric  measures  of,  293 
Letter  ^writing,  326 
Lice  killers,  165 
that       attack       domestic 

fowls,   164 

Light    Brahma    male,    Pic- 
ture of,  47 
Linear  measure,   Table   of, 

287 

Line  breeding,  160 
Linseed  meal,  47 
Liquid  lice  killer,  171 

measure,  289 

Live-weight      value      com- 
pared with  plucked  and 
drawn   weight,    159 
Long-ton  table,  289 
Loss  in  dressing  fowls,  154 
of    total    egg    crop,    Per- 
centage of,  118 

M 

Maine  ration,  72 
Mammoth     incubators     and 
brooders,    113 


Mangels,  48 
Market  poultry,  152 
Marking  of  fowls  for  iden- 
tification, 226 

of  pigeons,  230 
Mash,  Dry,  71 
Masonry  estimations,  307 
Mating,   Methods   of,   162 
Measures  of  angles  or  arcs, 
292 

of  capacity,  289 

of  distances,  301 

of  extension,  287 

of  money,  294 

of  time,  291 

of  volume,  301 
Meat     and    meat    products 
for  poultry,  54 

Tainted,  55 

Metric  equivalents  of 
pounds,  feet,  etc.,  299 

system  of  measures,  292 
Milk  for  poultry  food,  56 
Millet,  46 
Mineral  matter  for  poultry, 

Minorca,  Picture  of,  179 
Miscellaneous   information, 

241 

tables,  298 
Missouri   ration,   73 
Moisture    and    temperature 

in  incubators,  102 
Molt,    ^Feeding     of     fowls 

during,  74 

Money,  Equivalent  of  Eng- 
lish, in  United  States 
coinage,  295 

Equivalent  of  foreign,  in 
United  States  coinage, 
296 

Measures  and  tables  of, 
294 

IV 

Nails,   Weight  of  one  keg, 

Names  of  parts   of  a  fowl, 

257 

Nest  box,  89 
Notes,  319 


INDEX 


O 


Oats,    41 

Official  score  card  for  eggs, 

139 

Onions,   49  % 
Ontario  ration,  73 
Orpington,         Picture         of 

Black,  121 

P 

Packages  and  packing  of 
eggs,  128 

Painting  estimations,  302 

Papering  estimations,  302 

Parasites,    Killing  of,   174 
Method      of      ridding      a 

house  of,  175 
that       attack       domestic 
fowls,   163,  164 

Parts  of  a  fowl,  Names  of, 
144,  257 

Peanut  meal,  47 

Peas,  45 

Peck,  Cu.  in.  in,  309 

Perch  of  stone,  301 

Petroleum,  Weight  of  gal- 
lon, 290 

Pheasants,  Feeding  of,  79 

Pigeon  fanciers,  Terms 
used  by,  283 

Pigeons,   Feeding  of,  85 
Marking  of,  230 
Proper    way    of    catching 

and  holding,  244 
Varieties  of,  280 

Pint,  Cu.  in.  in,  309 

Plastering  estimations,  302 

Plucked-weight  value  com- 
pared with  live  and 
drawn  weight,  159 

Plucking  and  killing  of 
poultry,  157 

Plymouth      Rock      female, 

Picture  of,  64 
Rock    male,    White,    Pic- 
ture of,  97 

Poisonous  foods,  58 

Postaldistances  andtime,311 

Potatoes,  49 

Poultry  and  certain  other 
foods,  Comparison  of, 
153 


Poultry  and  poultry  prod- 
ucts, Value  of,  2 

Animals  destructive  to, 
177 

Classes  of  market,  154 

exports,  6 

foods,  34 

house,  Method  of  ridding, 
of  parasites,  175 

houses,  7 

houses.  Adaptation  of,  to 
locality,  7 

houses,  Arrangement  of, 
16 

houses,  Position  of,  15 

judging,   191 

Killing  and  plucking  of, 

Market,   152 

Marking  of,  226 

prices,   159 

production,    Rank   of  ten 

leading  states  in,  4 
raising,  1 
shows    and    associations, 

202 

Simple   remedies  for,    183 
Standard  and  non-stand- 
ard varieties  of,  209 
Standard  weights  of,  221 
Powder  guns,  173 
Preserving  eggs,  134 
Prevention     of    infestation 
by     fowls     from     other 
flocks,   174 
Prices,  Egg,  140 
of  poultry,   159 
Production,     Monthly    rec- 
ords of  egg,  122 
Pumpkins,  50 

Q 

Quart,  Cu.  in.  in,  309 
Quintal  of  fish,  Weight  of, 

290 
Quire,  299 

R 

Rape  seed,  48 

Rations  for  laying  hens,  71 

Ream,  299 

Reaumur  thermometer,  298 


INDEX 


Records  of  egg  production, 

Monthly,    122 
Remedies    for    poultry, 

Simple,  183 
Respiration,   Artificial,   332, 

341 
Restoring      of      apparently 

drowned  persons,  341 
Rice,  46 

Roup,  Treatment  of,  186 
Rules,     American     Poultry 

Association,   203 
for  hatching,    105 
of  business,  316 
Rye,  44 


Score,  298 

card,  Comparison,  196 
card,  Decimal,  194 
card     for     eggs,     Official, 

139 

card  for  farm  flocks,  198 
card  for  judging  hens  by 

Cornell  test,  148 
card  of  American  Poultry 

Association,  192 
Season,     Relation     of     egg 

production  to,    120 
Selecting  hens  for  egg  pro- 

duction, 142 
Shade  for  poultry,  26 
Shock,    Treatment   of   elec- 

tric, 337 

Treatment  of,  333 
Show        rules,        American 
Poultry  Association,  203 
Shows      and      associations, 

Poultry,  202 
Sitting  hens,  89 
Scratch  grain,  71 
Sorghum  seed,  46 
Specific  heats  of  metals,  296 
Sprains,  Treatment  of,  340 
Sprayers,  173 
Squabs,      Proper     way      to 

hold,  243 
Square   measure,   Table   of, 

287 

Standard  and  non-standard 
varieties  of  poultry,  2C9 


Standard       of       perfection, 

American,  208 
Standard   weights   of   poul- 

try, 221 

Standards  for  eggs,   123 
Sterilizing,  331 
Strain  breeding,  161 
Sun    stroke,    Treatment    of, 

341 

Sunflower  seed,  46 
Surface,     Metric    measures 

of,  293 
Surveyors'  square  measure, 

Table  of,  288 


Temperature,   298 
and   moisture    in    incuba- 

tors, 102 
Terms  used  by  pigeon  fan- 

ciers, 283 

used  by  poultrymen, 
Glossary  of  technical, 
256 

Testing  fertility  of  eggs,  95 
Thermometer  readings,  Con- 

version of,  298 
Time     and     distances     by 

postal  routes,  311 
Difference    between    that 
of  New  York  City  and 
other      parts      of      the 
world,  300 
Measures  of,  291 
required  to  raise  broilers 

and   roasters,    156 
Toe  markings,  226 
Ton,  Avoirdupois,  288 
Long,  289 
Metric,  293 
Shipping,  311 

Troy  weight,  Table  of,  289 
Turkeys,  Feeding  of,  78 
Turnips,  48 

tJ 

Unit  house,  27 

United        States        money, 

Table  of,  294 
Uses  of  eggs,   114 
Utility  score  card,  201 


INDEX 


Value  of  fowls  live, 
plucked,  or  drawn,  Rel- 
ative, 159 

Varieties  of  poultry,  Stand- 
ard and  non-standard, 
209 

Volume,  Measures  of,  301 
Metric  measures  of,   293 

Vegetables  for  poultry 
food,  48 

W 

Washing  of  eggs,  118 
Water,     Boiling    point     of, 

298 

Freezing  point  of,  298 
glass  for  preserving  eggs, 

Wedding      anniversaries, 

Names  of,  314 
Weight,     Metric    measures 

of,   293 
of    eggs,    Relation    of,    to 

egg  production,    119 


Weight,   Loss  of,  in  dress- 
ing fowls,  154 
Measures  of,  288 
of  eggs,   115 
of      poultry      foods      per 

quart,  65 
Weights       of      poultry, 

Disqualifying,  221 
per     bushel      of     various 
commodities,  Legal,  245 
of  poultry,    Standard,  221 
Wheat,  39 
Wild  water  fowls,  Feeding 

of,  85 

Window   construction,   12 
Wounds,    338 
Wyandotte,  Picture  of,  160 

Y 

Yards   and  houses   for   dif- 
ferent varieties,  21 
for  poultry  houses,  25 

Years  in  which  a  given 
amount  will  double,  at 
various  rates  of  inter- 
est, 322 


The  Poultrymaii's 
Handbook 

POULTRY  RAISING 

Poultry  and  poultry  products  add  to  the  wealth  of  the 
country  each  year  more  than  wheat,  cotton,  or  gold. 
Poultry  can  be  kept  successfully  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world  and  is  the  most  profitable  kind  of  live-stock 
that  can  be  kept.  A  few  fowls  can  be  kept  by  the  inten- 
sive system  in  very  confined  quarters,  and  enough  to 
provide  poultry  and  eggs  for  a  small  family  can  be  raised 
profitably  in  a  corner  of  a  small  town  lot;  more  can  be 
kept  on  a  little  additional  space. 

An  attractive  feature  of  poultry  raising  is  that  fowls 
may  be  kept  for  pleasure  as  well  as  profit.  A  fancier 
may  use  the  best  of  all  the  fowls  he  raises  for  exhibi- 
tion, sell  a  few  of  equal  or  almost  equal  quality  to  others 
for  the  same  purpose,  sell  eggs  from  pens  of  mated  fowls 
for  hatching,  and  the  culls  of  the  flock  will  be  the  best 
of  market  poultry.  At  the  same  time  the  flock  will  fur- 
nish a  large  part  of  the  egg  and  meat  diet  for  a  small 
family. 

Poultry  farming  can  be  followed  by  almost  any  one 
who  has  a  small  piece  of  ground  and  a  few  dollars  to 
begin  with.  The  business  should  be  begun  in  a  small 
way  and  built  up  gradually.  Thousands  of  men  and 
women  are  becoming  independent  each  year  from  a 
beginning  with  a  little  piece  of  ground  on  which  they 
raise  poultry  and  vegetables.  On  a  small  town  lot 
50  ft.XlOO  ft.  almost  enough  vegetables  may  be  raised  to 


2  VALUE  OF  POULTRY 

provide  for  a  family  for  a  year,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  small  enclosure  for  poultry  may  be  built  on  a  corner 
of  the  lot. 

It  will  be  an  advantage  in  raising  vegetables  and 
poultry  on  a  small  piece  of  ground,  to  practice  migratory 
yarding.  This  consists  in  moving  the  house  and  yard 
or  simply  in  moving  'the  fence  to  enclose  a  different 
spot  of  ground.  In  this  way  space  occupied  by  the  poul- 
try one  year  will  be  highly  fertilized  for  the  growing  of 
vegetables  the  next  year,  and  the  fowls  will  be  bene- 
fited in  health  and  vigor  from  having  new,  sweet  earth 
to  travel  over  and  scratch  in. 


VALUE  OF  POULTRY  AND  POUL- 
TRY PRODUCTS 

The  U.  S.  census  of  1910  places  the  value  of  poultry 
and  poultry  products  at  $663,858,452.  This  amount  is  the 
value  of  these  products  from  farms,  and  does  not  include 
poultry  and  eggs  raised  in  towns  and  villages  and  on 
small  farms  by  persons  who  made  no  returns. 

The  census  separates  poultry  into  two  classes,  the 
mature  fowls  kept  for  egg  production  and  the  young  ones 
raised  each  year.  The  figures  for  the  value  of  each  class 
as  well  as  for  the  total  value  of  poultry  and  eggs  are 
as  follows: 

Total  value  of  mature  fowls $154,663,220 

Total  value  of  young  fowls  raised  in  1  year...  202,506,272 
Total  value  of  all  eggs  produced  in  1  year 306,688,960 


Total  value  of  both  poultry  and  eggs $663,858,452 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  U.  S.  Census, 
shows  the  number,  total  value,  and  average  value  of 
fowls  and  eggs  as  reported  for  1910.  The  table  also  gives 
the  number  of  farms  reporting  and  per  cent,  of  all  farms 
reporting. 


AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS  3 

NUMBER   OF   FOWLS    AND    VALUE    OF   POULTRY 
AND   EGGS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES  IN   1910 


MH 

g 

.1 

O    M   &0 

Number 

Value 

8-1 

11 

i! 

All  fowls  .  . 
Chickens  .  . 

295,880,190 
280,345,133 

$154,663  220 
140,205,607 

$  .52 
.50 

5,585,032 
5,578,525 

87.8 
87.7 

Turkeys..  . 

3,688.708 

6,605,818 

1.79 

871,123 

13.7 

Ducks  

2,9-06,525 

1,567,164 

.54 

503,704 

7.9 

Geese  

4,431,980 

3,194,507 

.72 

662,324 

10.4 

Eces 

19,095,736,452 

306,688,960 

.016 

5,634,780 

88.5 

In  1910  there  were  also  reported  1,765,000  guinea  fowls, 
valued  at  $613,000;  2,731,000  pigeons,  valued  at  $762,000; 
and  6,458  peafowls,  valued  at  $18,300. 

The  total  value  of  all  poultry  and  eggs  in  the  United 
States  in  1910  is  estimated  to  have  been  more  than 
$750,000,000,  and  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1912,  the 
total  value  is  estimated  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture as  approximately  $950,000,000.  The  value  of  poultry 
and  eggs  in  1918  is  estimated  as  over  one  billion  dollars. 
On  November  27,  1912,  one  of  the  large  New  York  daily 
newspapers  published  the  following  figures  giving  the 
comparative  value  per  annum  of  leading  American  farm 
products  for  a  period  of  5  yr. : 

Eggs  (average  price  to  farmer  22|  c.).  .$1,800,000,000 

Corn 1,500,000,000 

Wheat   625,000,000 

Hay    720,000,000 

Cotton    685,000,000 

Oats    390,000,000 

All  kinds  of  farm  products 8,000,000,000 

Accepting  this  as  a  fair  estimate,  we  cannot  help 
realizing  the  immense  value  of  poultry  products  in  the 
United  States. 


VALUE  OF  POULTRY 


and 

incr 


The  rank  of  the  ten  leading  states  in  the  number  and 
value  of  fowls  produced  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
table. 

RANK    OP   THE    TEN    LEADING    STATES    IN    THE 
NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  POULTRY  PRODUCED 


1 

State 

Number 

^i 

State 

Total 
Value 

1 

Iowa  

23,482,880 

1 

Iowa  

$12,269,881 

?, 

Illinois.  .  .  . 

21,409,835 

? 

Missouri 

11  870  972 

3 

Missouri  .... 

20,897,208 

ft 

Illinois  

11,696,650 

4 

Ohio  

17,342,289 

4 

Ohio 

9,532  672 

f> 

15,736,038 

5 

New  York  .  .  . 

7,879,388 

6 

kidiana  

13,789,109 

6 

Indiana  

7,762,015 

7 

Texas  

13  669,645 

7 

Pennsylvania 

7,674  387 

8 

Pennsylvania  . 

12,728,341 

8 

Kansas  

7,377,469 

Q 

Minnesota  . 

10  697  075 

q 

Texas  . 

4  806  642 

10 

New  York.... 

10,678,836 

10 

Minnesota.  .  . 

4,646,960 

This  table  shows  that  the  wholesale  price  of  poultry 
in  the  state  of  Missouri  was  greater  than  in  the  state 
of  Illinois;  that  the  price  of  Texas  poultry  was  less  than 
the  price  in  Pennsylvania;  that  the  price  in  New  York 
was  considerably  greater  than  in  other  states. 

The  census  reports  shows  that  the  average  wholesale 
value  of  live  chickens  in  New  England  was  74  cents; 
in  the  Middle  States,  68  cents;  in  the  Southern  States, 
from  38  to  44  cents;  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  the  price  was  from  62  to  82  cents  each. 
These  values  indicate  that  the  price  of  poultry  increases 
as  the  population  becomes  denser. 

The  following  table  shows  the  egg  receipts  by  months  ' 
for  the  years  1913  and  1916  in  seven  of  the  largest 
cities  of  the  country  and  indicates  the  months  of  highest 
and  lowest  production.  The  highest  prices  are  obtained, 
of  course,  when  the  yield  is  lowest.  The  seven  cities 
in  which  the  eggs  were  received  were  Boston,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  Milwaukee,  New  York,  St.  Louis,  and  San 
Francisco. 


AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS  5 

RECEIPTS    OP    EGGS    IN    SEVEN    LARGE     CITIES 
DURING  EACH  MONTH  OF  1913  AND  1916 


Months 

1913 

Cases 

1916 
Cases 

January  

508,673 

1,325,131 

February 

685,160 

551,158 

March  

1,281,153 

1,802,467 

April  .           

2,218,638 

2,844,042 

May  

2,390,427 

2,549.954 

June       . 

1,863,412 

1,837,307 

July  

1,344,824 

1,317,385 

August           .        ... 

1,000,157 

1,070,635 

September  

841,684 

814,533 

October 

667,834 

777,954 

November  

403,146 

531,355 

December  . 

399,277 

398,286 

Total  

13,604,385 

15,820,207 

In  December,  1913,  the  total  number  of  cases  of  eggs 
received  at  these  seven  stations  was  399,277.  The  lowest 
price  for  eggs  during  that  month  was  35  cents  and  the 
highest  price  for  the  same  month  in  New  York  was 
63  cents.  The  lowest  wholesale  price  for  eggs  in  New 
York  during  1913  was  20  cents,  the  highest  wholesale 
price  was  65  cents,  which  was  received  in  November. 

The  total  importation  of  eggs  into  this  country  during 
1913  was  1,367,224  dozens,  which  amounted  to  $205,632.  Of 
egg  yolks  bought  by  the  pound  there  were  228,305  pounds, 
which  cost  $36,892.  Ostrich  feathers  were  bought  at  a 
cost  of  $6,252,298;  and  other  kinds  of  feathers  for 
$1,985,084. 

There  were  exported  from  this  country  in  the  year  1913, 
20,409,390  dozens  of  eggs,  for  which  $4,391,653  was  received, 
and  egg  yolks  worth  $57,854  were  exported.  The  value 
of  exported  feathers  was  $690,612. 

The  total  number  of  eggs  received  during  1917  and  1918 
in  the  seven  cities  mentioned  is  recorded  in  the  follow- 
ing table.  Only  yearly  totals  are,  given,  the  monthly 


6  VALUE  OF  POULTRY 

records  not  having  been   compiled   when  this   table   was 
printed. 

RECEIPTS  OF  EGGS  IN  SEVEN  OF  THE   LARGEST 
CITIES  DURING  1917  AND  1918 


City 

1917 

Cases 

1918 

Cases 

Boston         .  .            . 

1,501,956 

1,604,289 

Chicago 

5  678  679 

5  049,743 

Milwaukee 

134,625 

180,616 

St.  Louis  

1,373,120 

934,668 

San  Francisco 

715  768 

666  845 

Cincinnati  

184,022 

176,733 

New  York  

4,357,061 

5,026,548 

Total  

13,945  231 

13,639,442 

During  the  years  1917  and  1918  on  acount  of  the  world 
war,  feed  and  grain  of  all  kinds  advanced  so  much  in 
price  as  to  have  an  influence  on  the  keeping  of  poultry. 
Many  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  production  of  poultry 
and  eggs  for  market  reduced  their  flocks  considerably. 
Notwithstanding  this  the  production  of  eggs  was  remark- 
ably good.  The  receipts  in  both  these  years  were  in 
excess  of  1913,  but  not  so  good  as  in  1916,  which  was  the 
banner  year  for  egg  production.  The  world  has  now 
returned  to  near  a  normal  condition,  and  there  is  likely 
to  be  an  increased  production  of  both  market  poultry  and 
eggs. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  definitely  the  amount  of  poultry 
exports,  as  the  records  of  these  are  kept  as  poultry  and 
game  and  $1,303,379  worth  was  reported  as  having  been 
exported  from  this  country  in  1913.  The  greater  part  of 
all  the  poultry  and  eggs  put  in  storage  and  sent  from 
this  to  other  countries  is  grown  in  the  Western  States. 
They  are  gathered  from  many  sections  into  the  packing 
houses  at  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  and  Chicago, 
where  the  eggs  are  selected,  candled,  and  graded  for 


POULTRY  HOUSES  7 

quality.  The  best  eggs  are  packed  into  new  egg  cases. 
The  greater  part  of  these  selected  eggs  go  into  cold 
storage,  only  a  small  portion  of  them  being  sent  abroad. 

Poultry  for  export  is  gathered  from  the  West  and 
Northwest  into  these  same  packing  houses,  where  it  is 
crate-fattened  and  made  plump  and  tender.  The  packers 
know  that  to  sell  poultry  in  foreign  countries  it  must  be 
the  very  best,  because  it  must  compete  with  poultry  from 
European  countries  where  the  growers  have  had  years 
of  experience  in  feeding  for  the  London  and  Paris  mar- 
kets. The  packing  houses  have  never  been  able  to  sup- 
ply enough  of  this  quality  to  satisfy  the  foreign  trade 
and  for  this  reason  very  little,  if  any,  has  been  offered 
for  sale  in  this  country. 

This  should  be  a  lesson  in  quality  to  all  who  grow 
poultry  for  the  market.  The  highest  prices  for  market 
poultry  are  paid  only  for  the  best.  It  costs  but  little 
more  to  produce  the  higher  grades  and  the  most  profit, 
of  course,  will  be  made  from  growing  and  selling  the  best. 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


ADAPTATION  OF  HOUSES  TO  LOCALITY 

The  many  changes  and  developments  in  poultry-house 
construction  during  the  last  few  years  make  necessary 
a  careful  consideration  of  all  plans,  so  as  to  be  reason- 
ably certain  of  having  a  house  that  will  be  suitable  for 
the  locality  where  it  is  built.  It  is  comparatively  easy 
to  designate  the  type  of  house  best  suited  for  any  one 
locality  but  when  we  attempt  to  choose  the  style  best 
suited  to  all  localities  the  selection  is  difficult.  In 
America  alone  we  require  protection  from  continual  ice 
and  snow  on  the  north  and  from  the  burning  heat  of  the 
tropics  on  the  south.  Between  these  two  extremes  will 
be  found  great  variation  in  weather  and  temperature. 
During  the  months  of  February  and  March,  it  may  be 


8  POULTRY  HOUSES 

so  pleasant  in  Florida  that  little  chicks  can  run  about 
on  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  it  may  be  so  cold  in 
the  Dakotas  as  to  require  unusual  effort  to  keep  larger 
animals  sufficiently  warm.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  is 
possible  through  care,  management,  and  proper  construc- 
tion of  buildings  to  use  about  the  same  type  of  house  in 
both  localities. 

What  is  known  as  the  open-front  house,  or  some  modi- 
fication of  it,  is  best  suited  for  all  localities.  In  Florida 
and  in  lower  California  fully  one-half  of  the  front  of 
the  house  should  be  open  and  there  should  be  some 
arrangement  in  the  rear  and  perhaps  at  both  ends  of  the 
building  to  clear  the  house  of  hot  air  during  the  warmest 
months. 

Less  open  front  will  be  needed  in  the  temperate  zones 
than  farther  south,  and  less  from  the  Dakotas  to  Alaska 
than  in  the  temperate  zones.  The  greater  the  number 
of  fowls  kept  in  each  house,  the  more  open  the  front  of 
the  house  should  be,  and  the  fewer  kept  in  each  house 
throughout  the  temperate  and  the  northern  zones,  the  less 
open  front  will  be  needed.  All  poultry  houses  used  north 
of  latitude  35°  should  have  both  glass  windows  and  open- 
front  or  cotton-cloth  windows  in  them.  In  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  practice  of  putting  a  window  in  each 
end  of  a  house.  This  is  a  good  plan  for  the  summer,  but 
it  is  objectionable  for  the  winter  unless  the  windows  can 
be  closed  so  tightly  that  no  cold  drafts  can  enter  around 
the  edges. 

In  temperate  zones  there  should  be  about  1  sq.  ft.  of 
open  or  muslin-covered  windows  to  each  10  sq.  ft.  of  floor 
space  and  about  three-fourths  as  much  glass  window  as 
muslin  window.  In  the  far  north,  in  Winnipeg  and  in 
Manitoba,  about  half  as  much  muslin-covered  windows 
with  fully  one-third  more  glass  window  will  answer. 
The  glass  windows  in  all  houses  should  extend  from  18  to 
24  in.  above  the  floor  to  near  the  roof,  to  permit  the  sun- 
shine to  get  into  the  interior  of  the  building. 

Although  it  is  possible  to  use  the  same  style  of  exterior 
construction  in  all  localities,  it  is  necessary  to  under- 


POULTRY  HOUSES  9 

stand  climatic  conditions  where  the  house  is  built  and 
follow  the  kind  of  construction  that  seems  best  suited 
to  that  locality.  In  sections  where  the  winters  are  of 
long  duration  and  very  cold,  there  should  be  no  hips  or 
pockets  in  the  roof  nor  any  extra  amount  of  overhead 
space.  The  ceiling  should  be  straight  and  there  should 
be  some  means  of  carrying  away  damp  cold  air  and  of 
keeping  an  even  temperature  and  distribution  of  air 
throughout  the  entire  house.  Inside  conditions  as  they 
exist  in  the  coldest  and  dampest  weather  furnish  the  best 
means  of  determining  proper  housing.  If  the  interior  of 
the  house  is  dry  or  nearly  so  when  the  weather  is  cold 
and  the  air  is  damp,  the  conditions  inside  the  building 
are  very  nearly  ideal  for  poultry.  A  sure  test  for  dry- 
ness  inside  of  the  house  is  freedom  from  frost  or  mois- 
ture on  the  side  walls  and  glass  windows  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  litter  on  the  floor.  If  the  litter  is  damp,  it 
indicates  that  the  floor  is  damp  and  that  the  inside  of 
the  building  is  not  as  dry  as  it  should  be.  Dryness 
inside  the  house  is  an  absolute  necessity  for  the  health 
of  fowls. 

One  of  the  best  types  of  house  for  a  very  cold  climate 
is  one  that  is  not  more  than  6J  ft.  high  to  the  eaves,  has 
a  gable  roof,  and  a  loft  for  storing  straw  overhead.  The 
floor  of  the  loft  should  be  of  strong  boards  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  straw.  It  may  be  made  of  planks  2  in. 
thick  and  6  in.  wide,  with  the  planks  laid  4  in.  apart. 
The  filling  of  straw  overhead  makes  the  building  warm 
in  the  winter  and  the  straw  will  absorb  whatever  mois- 
ture may  arise.  It  may  be  removed  in  the  spring,  thus 
giving  more  overhead  ventilation  and  a  cool  house  for 
summer. 

Both  glass  windows  and  cloth-covered  windows  should 
be  used  in  every  locality  where  the  weather  is  cold. 
There  should  be  a  lining  of  boards  from  1  ft.  above  the 
floor,  behind  the  dropping-board  and  roosts  of  the  back 
wall,  and  on  the  side  walls  next  to  the  roost.  This 
covering  of  boards  should  extend  up  over  the  dropping- 
board  and  about  2  ft.  beyond  it,  thus  affording  a  con- 


10  POULTRY  HOUSES 

tinuous  current  of  air  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  behind 
the  lining  and  overhead  between  the  lining  and  the 
rafters,  making  the  roosting  place  much  warmer  in  win- 
ter than  it  would  be  if  there  were  no  lining  in  that  part 
of  the  house.  This  same  lining  assists  in  ventilating 
the  house  during  hot  weather.  For  this  purpose  openings 
are  cut  through  the  rear  of  the  building  so  that  the  air 
will  come  in  and  flow  up  between  the  rafters  overhead, 
driving  the  hot  air  out  of  the  house  through  openings 
very  close  to  the  roof  in  front. 


FEATURES  OF  POULTRY  HOUSES  OF 
PROPER  CONSTRUCTION 

Sufficient  advantages  are  gained  through  proper  con- 
struction to  warrant  some  expenditure  above  what  would 
be  necessary  if  the  buildings  were  less  carefully  erected. 
If  the  poultry  houses  are  perfectly  dry  inside  during  the 
winter,  properly  ventilated,  and  kept  in  a  sanitary  con- 
dition, the  hens  that  are  raised  in  them  will  be  healthy 
and  vigorous,  and  they  will  produce  more  eggs  than  they 
would  if  housed  in  damp  and  unsanitary  buildings.  Per- 
fect health  and  vitality  are  of  prime  importance,  and 
these  depend  upon  proper  shelter,  ventilation,  and  care, 
without  which  the  very  best  hens  will  not  be  profitable. 

The  principal  features  of  houses  of  proper  construction 
are  floor  space  sufficient  for  indoor  exercise  during  in- 
clement weather,  convenience  of  interior  equipment  for 
the  keepers,  window  construction  that  will  admit  sun- 
shine to  all  parts  of  the  house,  and  govern  the  tempera- 
ture inside  of  the  house,  thus  preventing  excessive  heat 
in  summer  and  intense  cold  in  winter.  The  floor  should 
be  of  a  kind  that  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  moisture 
from  below  and  assure  protection  against  the  ravages  of 
rats  and  mice;  in  addition  to  this  there  must  be  such 
ventilation  and  sanitation  as  to  insure  a  dry  interior. 
Careful  practice  of  these  rules  will  create  and  maintain 
vigor,  vitality,  and  health  in  the  fowls. 


POULTRY  HOUSES  11 

Floor  Space  for  Fowls. — The  best  results  are  obtained 
in  houses  where  there  is  at  least  4  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space 
for  each  fowl.  One  square  foot  less  will  answer  for  the 
Mediterranean  varieties,  provided  the  house  is  kept  per- 
fectly clean;  an  extra  square  foot  should  be  provided 
for  the  American  and  English  varieties,  because  they  are 
larger  and  require  more  space  both  for  roosting  and 
scratching  than  the  Mediterranean  varieties,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Minorcas,  which  will  need  fully  as  much 
space  as  any  of  the  American  varieties. 

Poultry-House  Floors  and  Their  Construction.— For 
poultry  buildings  an  earth  floor  is  satisfactory  when  it 
can  be  kept  dry  and  sanitary.  For  general  purposes,  the 
board  floor  is  better  and  is  the  cheapest  one  that  can  be 
laid.  About  the  only  objections  that  can  be  lodged  against 
it  are  that  perfect  dryness  is  not  always  assured  and  that 
rodents  can  gnaw  through  it.  The  best  floor,  although 
the  most  expensive,  is  the  cement  floor,  because  it  insures 
perfect  dryness,  keeps  rodents  from  digging  through,  and 
can  easily  be  kept -in  a  sanitary  condition.  A  cement 
floor  may  be  cold  and  rough  for  the  feet,  but  these 
objections  can  be  overcome,  if  desired,  by  laying  a  board 
on  top  of  the  cement. 

The  floors  of  poultry  buildings  should  be  above  the 
ground  level.  For  the  ground  floor,  the  most  satisfactory 
way  is  to  lay  a  foundation  of  stone,  brick,  or  cement 
6  in.  high  all  around,  fill  it  in  with  dry  earth,  and  pack 
it  down  solid. 

Board  floors  should  be  laid  on  2"X4"  joists  and  the 
spaces  between  them  should  be  packed  with  any  kind  of 
filling.  If  the  joists  are  set  in  a  bed  of  concrete  and 
concrete  is  filled  in  between  them  level  with  the  top,  a 
perfectly  dry  floor  and  the  exclusion  of  rodents  will  be 
assured.  When  the  board  floor  is  laid  a  coating  of  hot  tar 
should  be  spread  on  top  of  the  concrete  and  covered  with 
a  layer  of  tar  paper  and  on  top  of  this  another  layer  of 
hot  tar.  Such  preparation  makes  a  perfect  underlay  for 
a  board  floor.  The  flooring,  which  should  be  of  grooved 
boards,  should  be  laid  on  the  tar  while  it  is  warm  and 


12  POULTRY  HOUSES 

be  nailed  close  together  to  prevent  cracks  in  the  floor. 
A  floor  made  in  this  way  is  an  ideal  one  for  poultry. 

For  a  cement  floor,  the  foundation  should  be  laid  all 
around  at  least  18  in.  deep  and  extend  at  least  6  in. 
above  the  ground.  The  enclosed  space  should  be  filled  in 
with  dry  sand  or  ashes  to  within  6  in.  of  the  top  and  the 
material  should  be  packed  down  solid.  On  top  of  this 
should  be  laid  another  concrete  layer  made  of  2  parts  of 
sand  and  1  part  of  cement,  troweled  down  very  smooth 
and  worked  until  the  moisture  comes  to  the  top.  A  floor 
made  in  this  way  will  be  smooth  and  will  not  hurt  the 
feet  of  the  fowls  if  the  work  is  carefully  done. 

Conveniences  of  Management.— A  great  saving  of  time 
and  labor  will  come  through  having  an  interior  equip- 
ment adequate  for  caring  for  the  fowls.  This  equipment 
may  consist  of  dropping-boards,  with  roosts  and  nests 
beneath  them,  all  of  modern  construction.  In  addition 
to  this  there  should  be  feed  hoppers  and  watering  pans 
placed  up  above  the  floor  on  platforms,  out  of  the  way 
of  litter  and  dirt.  Hopper  feeding  is.a  convenient,  eco- 
nomical, and  labor-saving  method  that  can  be  practiced 
by  all  who  keep  poultry  either  in  small  or  large 
numbers. 

Window  Construction. — Window  construction  may  well 
be  considered  as  an  interior  equipment.  When  so  con- 
structed that  they  can  be  opened  or  closed  quickly  and 
easily,  they  are  a  great  convenience,  but  when  heavy 
and  cumbersome  and  hard  to  move,  they  will  make  more 
difficult  the  changes  necessary  for  controlling  temper- 
ature, windstorms,  and  ventilation.  Window  sash  con- 
taining glass  will  be  convenient  if  hung  on  pivots  as 
in  Fig.  1  (a).  The  cloth-covered  windows  are  best  when 
of  small  size  so  that  the  frames  covered  with  cloth  will 
be  light  and  handled  easily  and  quickly.  When  of  small 
size,  a  part  of-  them  can  be  open  while  the  others  are 
closed,  thus  providing  the  necessary  amount  of  open  front 
to  meet  the  demands  of  different  kinds  of  weather. 

There  are  several  types  of  windows  well  suited  to 
poultry  houses.  The  one  most  convenient  for  a  small 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


13 


building  is  the  sliding  window,  which  is  simple  and 
cheap  to  construct.  For  a  house  o  ft.XlO  ft.,  a  single 
sash  should  slide  either  to  the  right  or  the  left.  A  frame 
made  of  wood  of  the  same  size  as  the  sash  can  be  covered 
with  muslin  and  used,  when  needed,  in  place  of  the  glass 
window.  The  outside  of  the  opening  should  be  covered 
with  heavy  i-in.  galvanized  wire  cloth  to  prevent  birds 


(f) 


*" 
FIG.  1 

or  fowls  from  going  in  or  out  through  the  window  and 
to  admit  air  and  light  when  the  windows  are  left  open. 
The  window  sash  or  frame  should  slide  in  a  groove, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1  (&).  This  is  made  by  a  2"X4"  or  a 
2"X2"  strip,  according  to  the  size  and  needs  of  the  build- 
ing. The  frame  for  the  sliding  sash  should  be  suffi- 
ciently long  to  permit  the  sash  to  be  entirely  open,  and 
there  should  be  provision  made  for  replacing  or  chang- 
ing the  sash  by  sliding  the  cloth-covered  frame  over  the 
opening  and  leaving  the  glass-filled  sash  in  the  groove. 


14  POULTRY  HOUSES 

A  sash  hinged  at  the  top  and  opening  outwards,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1  (c),  is  a  modern  construction  for  venti- 
lation. When  opened  slightly,  a  window  of  this  kind 
will  give  ventilation  and  yet  turn  rain  or  snow  away 
from  the  opening.  This  kind  of  window  serves  best 
•when  used  for  the  outer  covering.  Inner  protection  can 
be  had  by  fastening  a  window  frame  to  the  inside  of 
the  window,  this  frame  to  be  covered  with  heavy  gal- 
vanized wire  cloth  with  a  mesh  no  larger  than  \  in. 

One  of  the  very  best  types  of  glass  window  for  pro- 
tection and  ventilation  is  represented  in  Fig.  1  (a).  The 
sash  in  this  window  is  hung  on  pivots  or  sash  centers. 
A  glass  window  of  this  kind  provides  almost  ideal  venti- 
lation; it  can  be  opened  any  distance  from  an  inch  to 
a  foot.  The  air  coming  in  is  driven  to  the  roof  and  is 
spread  out  there  and  distributed  throughout  the  entire 
house.  Proper  ventilation  and  a  dry  interior  result 
through  the  use  of  these  windows  without  the  use  of 
open  fronts  or  muslin  windows. 

Where  the  open  fronts,  the  muslin  windows,  and  this 
type  of  glass  window  are  used,  the  process  of  ventilation 
is  simple.  When  the  sashes  are  closed  and  the  front 
open  the  sun  shines  bright  and  warm  through  the  win- 
dows into  the  most  remote  part  of  the  building.  The 
admission  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine  through  the  open 
front  dries  and  tempers  the  atmosphere.  When  the 
weather  is  cold  or  stormy  or  when  the  wind  is  blowing 
fast  or  cold,  or  snow  is  coming  into  the  house,  ventila- 
tion may  be  had  by  entirely  closing  the  open  front  with 
muslin -covered  frames,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  (cO,  and  open- 
ing the  glass  window  a  few  inches  as  may  be  needed. 

A  wooden  shutter  or  ventilator  as  a  substitute  for  open 
windows  has  been  used  at  the  Missouri  State  Poultry 
Experiment  Station.  This  ventilator  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 
(e).  It  should  contain  1  sq.  ft.  of  surface  for  each  10  sq. 
ft.  of  floor  space.  The  strips  used  in  the  construction 
should  be  4  in.  wide  and  set  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees,  leaving  a  space  of  1|  in.  between  the  strips. 
Where  the  weather  is  extremely  cold,  thin  muslin  can 


POULTRY  HOUSES  15 

be  tacked  over  the  inside  of  the  ventilator  and  removed 
as  soon  as  the  cold  weather  is  gone. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  poultry-house 
ventilation,  and  hundreds  of  suggestions  have  been  made 
for  different  kinds  of  ventilators.  The  most  recent  ven- 
tilator is  the  Cornell  wind  baffler,  which  differs  materi- 
ally from  the  Missouri  shutter  ventilator.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  Cornell  baffler  is  shown  in  Fig.  1  (f).  This 
has  L-shaped  bafflers  in  place  of  the  flat  strips  of  wood 
used  in  the  shutter  ventilator.  It  would  seem  to  be 
almost  impossible  for  rain  or  snow  to  pass  through  the 
baffler.  More  glass  windows  are  needed  for  light  in 
houses  where  shutters  or  baffler  is  used  than  in  houses 
that  have  cloth-covered  windows. 


POSITION  FOR  POULTRY  HOUSES 

Position  for  Poultry  Houses. — Houses  for  poultry  should 
face  toward  the  south;  and  to  meet  this  condition  con- 
siderable study  in  the  arrangement  and  layout  of  the 
yard  will  be  at  times  required.  When  poultry  buildings 
are  erected  in  the  rear  of  the  dwelling  house  and  the 
front  of  the  dwelling  house  faces  the  north,  it  is  easy 
to  have  the  poultry  building  in  the  rear  face  the  south. 
If  the  dwelling  faces  the  south,  the  poultry  houses  would 
have  to  be  built  facing  south,  at  the  rear  end  of  the  lot. 

In  erecting  a  poultry  house  at  the  rear  of  the  lot 
facing  south,  the  rear  of  the  building  should  be  next  to 
the  back  fence  so  that  the  watershed  of  the  roof  will  be 
away  from  the  center  of  the  yard.  To  have  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  sunshine  and  ventilation  in  a  house  so 
placed  requires  that  the  south  end  and  a  portion  of 
either  the  east  or  the  west  end  be  of  glass  and  open 
front,  with  the  roosting  place  for  the  hens  at  the  north 
end  of  the  building.  A  house  so  built  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  In  this  illustration  the  rear  part  of  the  poultry 
building  is  placed  toward  the  east,  the  windows  facing 
the  south  and  the  west.  The  reason  for  locating  I':: 


16 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


building  on  the  east  side  is  to  gain  the  greatest  amount 
of  sunshine  inside  the  house  during  the  winter  months. 
If  the  dwelling  house  faces  the  south,  the  poultry 
building  placed  at  the  rear  end  of  the  lot  can  face  south. 
If  the  house  faces  the  west,  the  rear  of  the  poultry 
building  can  be  against  the  fence  on  the  north  side;  the 
same  position  should  be  used  if  the  dwelling  house  faces 
the  east.  When  the  buildings  are  so  arranged,  good 
ventilation  and  the  maximum  of  sunlight  in  winter  will 
be  assured. 


FORM  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HOUSES 

The    most    efficient    and    economical    style    of    poultry 
house  is  the  straight-front,  slant-roof  building  with  open 


FIG.  2 

front  or  with  glass  and  cloth-covered  windows  in  the 
front,  constructed  according  to  the  needs  of  the  locality 
where  the  house  is  erected.  This  type  of  house  can  be 
constructed  with  extreme  simplicity,  or  it  can  be  em- 
bellished according  to  the  taste  of  the  builder.  Under 
no  conditions,  however,  should  it  be  built  in  a  way  that 
will  detract  from  its  usefulness. 

Wide  houses  are  best  suited  to  any  locality  where  the 
laying  hens  must  be  kept  inside  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time  during  the  winter  months.  Such  houses  are 
warmer,  afford  better  protection  from  the  cold,  and  are 
more  satisfactory  than  narrow  buildings.  Houses  from 


POULTRY  HOUSES  17 

18  to  20  ft.  wide  are  generally  favored,  especially  where 
several  hundred  hens  are  kept  during  the  winter. 

The  open-front  house  should  be  of  close  construction, 
with  both  ends,  back,  roof,  and  floor  as  nearly  air-tight 
as  they  can  be  made,  and  with  a  front  having  the  proper 
arrangement  of  open  and  glass  windows.  Such  construc- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which  shows  a  small  house,  well 
suited  for  the  side  of  a  city  lot.  The  roosting  apartment 
is  to  the  left  and  the  open  runway  to  the  right.  This 
house  allows  4  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  in  the  roosting  apart- 
ment and  6  sq.  ft.  in  the  runway  for  each  fowl.  That 
would  be  20  fowls  for  80  sq.  ft.  in  the  roosting  house 
and  for  120  'sq.  ft.  in  the  runway.  This  house  is  intended 
for  fowls  that  are  kept  shut  in.  When  there  is  no  danger 
of  their  injuring  the  crops,  they  may  be  permitted  to 
run  about  in  that  portion  of  the  yard  used  for  a  garden 
or  for  flowers.  The  runway  can  always  be  kept  sanitary. 
When  it  needs  cleaning,  the  fowls  can  be  shut  inside  the 
roosting  place,  and  with  a  hoe  and  a  rake  the  filth  can 
be  scraped  up,  carried  away,  and  replaced  by  fresh  earth 
from  the  garden. 

Houses  of  this  type  can  be  built  of  almost  any  size 
required.  If  there  is  plenty  of  room  in  the  yard,  the 
runway  may  be  made  larger  or  an  open  runway  added 
to  the  end  of  the  closed  run.  A  cover  of  canvas  can  be 
spread  over  the  wire  front  to  keep  out  heavy  rains  .and 
snow.  When  the  weather  is  wet  or  cold  the  open  front 
in  the  roosting  place  should  be  closed  with  a  frame  made 
of  wood  and  covered  with  muslin.  A  covered  runway 
affords  dry  footing  for  the  fowls,  and  no  opportunity  for 
rain  or  snow  to  fall  into  the  runway  and  make  the 
ground  unfit  for  the  fowls  to  use.  Such  a  runway  can 
be  kept  sanitary  if  cleaned  frequently,  and  such  yards 
and  houses  will  be  a  pleasure  to  the  owner. 

For  some  reasons  it  may  be  better  for  the  roof  to  slope 
away  from  the  yard  rather  than  toward  it.  In  Fig.  2 
a  tin  water  spout  is  shown  that  conducts  the  rainwater 
to  the  left  of  the  building  down  to  a  cistern  from  which 
the  stored  water  may  be  taken  for  sprinkling  the  gar- 


18  POULTRY  HOUSES 

den.  The  water  could  be  so  stored  even  if  the  slope  of 
the  roof  were  toward  the  north.  In  that  case,  however, 
the  heat  of  the  southern  sun  would  not  serve  to  keep 
pipes  from  freezing  or  promptly  to  melt  the  snow  on  the 
sloping  roof. 

The  roosting  place  of  the  fowls  should  be  located  at 
the  left  in  the  rear  of  the  building.  The  latticework 
shown  between  the  open  runway  and  the  roosting  place 


FIG.  3 

affords  better  ventilation  during  the  warm  nights  of 
summer,  and  it  also  allows  free  circulation  of  fresh  air 
into  the  roosting  place  without  causing  drafts. 

It  is  possible  to  keep  poultry  in  the  most  densely 
populated  sections  of  a  town  without  offense  to  the 
neighbors.  A  suggestion  for  a  model  backyard  poultry 
run  in  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  is  taken  in  part  from  a 
photograph  made  of  poultry  runs  at  Cheltenham,  Eng- 
land. Two  flocks  of  hens  without  males  can  be  kept  in 
these  runways.  The  roosting  apartment  in  the  rear  end 
is  equipped  for  two  flocks;  covered  runways  on  each  side 


POULTRY  HOUSES  19 

are  attractive  in  appearance  and  furnish  plenty  of  room 
for  exercise  out  in  the  open  yet  afford  protection  from 
the  rain  and  snow  that  makes  conditions  quite  unsani- 
tary when  permitted  to  fall  in  small  runways  that  are  in 
constant  use. 

The  walks  on  both  sides  of  the  flower  garden  are  made 
of  cement.  The  gutters  a  for  drainage  are  laid  along 
the  front  of  the  runways  and  next  to  the  cement  founda- 
tion. The  cement  extends  beneath  both  the  runways  and 
the  roosting  place.  A  foot  of  closely  packed  earth  is 
filled  in  on  top  of  the  cement  making  a  dry  ground  floor 
for  the  runways.  This  earth  can  be  dug  out  and  replaced 
by  fresh  earth  as  frequently  as  necessary,  thus  keeping 
the  house  and  yards  sweet  and  clean  and  avoiding  all 
chance  of  offensive  odors  or  contamination  of  the  soil. 

Where  there  is  sufficient  room,  the  runways  can  be 
extended  and  used  for  young  chicks.  Where  there  is 
not  space  enough  for  this,  pullets  for  replenishing  the 
flock  must  be  raised  elsewhere.  This  plan  was  intended 
only  for  the  housing  of  hens  kept  for  egg  production, 
but  the  same  construction  could  be  adapted  for  breeding 
pens. 

The  baseboards  as  shown  in  the  illustration  cover  the 
cement  foundation  wall  of  the  runways  and  the  roosting 
place.  Openings  are  cut  through  the  rear  wall  of  each 
runway;  they  are  covered  on  the  outside  with  heavy 
iron  screen  and  are  closed  on  the  inside  with  shutters  or 
doors  hung  on  hinges.  These  doors  can  be  turned  up 
against  the  roof  during  warm  weather.  The  free  circu- 
lation of  air  through  these  openings  will  reduce  the 
temperature  inside  the  runways  during  the  warmest 
weather.  The  same  kind  of  ventilation  can  be  applied 
to  the  rear  of  the  roosting  place.  This  would  be  neces- 
sary, however,  only  in  tropical  climates  or  where  the 
nights  are  excessively  hot. 

The  front  of  the  roosting  house  is  9  ft.  high  and  the 
front  of  the  runway  is  8J  ft.  high,  affording  sufficient 
space  overhead  and  better  ventilation  during  hot  weather 
than  a  lower  house  would  give.  Iron  posts  are  attached 


20  POULTRY  HOUSES 

to  the  rear  end  of  the  roof  both  on  the  roosting  house 
and  the  runways.  Heavy  barbed  wire  stretched  between 
these  posts  prevents  approach  from  the  rear. 

The  arrangement  of  house  and  yards  shown  in  Fig.  4 
was  evolved  in  England  to  meet  the  food-shortage  emer- 
gency. The  house  in  the  rear  is  an  open-front,  scratch- 
ing-shed  house,  in  which  the  poultry  can  be  confined  in 
all  kinds  of  weather,  especially  when  it  rains  and  the 
ground  is  wet  outside.  The  interior  of  the  house  can 
be  arranged  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  owner.  The 


FIG.  4 

roosts  should  be  placed  to  the  extreme  right  of  the 
house  and  the  nests  to  the  left  of  the  roosts,  to  make 
it  convenient  for  those  who  go  into  the  house  through 
the  door  in  the  center  to  gather  the  eggs  and  to  clean 
up  without  disturbing  the  poultry.  The  vegetable  garden 
and  poultry  yard  are  alternated  yearly.  To  make  the 
change,  the  front  fence  and  the  line  of  fencing  along  the 
pathway  should  be  moved  over  to  enclose  the  garden 
patch  for  a  poultry  yard,  the  other  side  then  being  used 
as  a  garden  plot.  When  this  change  is  made,  the  front 
sections  at  the  extreme  right  and  left  are  changed  so 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


21 


as  to  transfer  the  small  doorway  through  which  the  hens 
come  out  into  the  yard.  At  the  same  time,  the  roosts 
and  the  nests  are  moved  from  the  right  to  the  left  end 
of  the  building. 

HOUSES    AND    YARDS    FOR    DIFFERENT 
VARIETIES 

Special    arrangements  must  be   made   for   housing  and 
yarding  several  varieties  of  chickens  on  a  limited  space. 


FIG.  5 

They  must  be  kept  separate,  each  variety  by  itself.  To 
accomplish  this,  the  fences  around  the  enclosure  and 
between  the  yards  must  be  high  enough  and  so  well 
constructed  that  the  fowls  cannot  get  out  of  the  yards 
alloted  to  them.  The  fences  shown  in  Fig.  5  are  8  ft. 
high;  these  yards  were  used  for  Hamburgs  and  Bantams. 
The  lower  part  of  the  fence  is  2  ft.  high,  and  is  made  of 
boards;  the  upper  part  is  made  of  6-ft.  wire  fencing. 
Fences  6  ft.  high  will  do  for  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyan- 


22  POULTRY  HOUSES 

dottes,  Orpingtons,  or  fowls  of  equal  or  larger  size.  A 
fence  of  this  height  would  have  wire  fencing  4  ft.  wide 
above  the  boards. 

The  building  shown  in  Fig.  5  is  12  ft.  wide  and  100  ft. 
long,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  compartments.  The 
yards  are  8  ft.  wide  and  24  ft.  long  and  can  be  made 
longer  when  space  will  permit.  One  male  and  six  or 
eight  females  can  be  kept  in  each  compartment;  more 
may  be  kept,  but  when  this  is  done  there  is  danger  of 
contamination,  loss  of  vitality,  and  less  fertility.  The 


house  is  9  ft.  high  in  front  and  5  ft.  high  in  the  rear; 
there  is  an  opening  close  to  the  roof  in  front  and  one  in 
the  rear,  which  should  be  left  open  during  hot  weather. 
This  permits  circulation  of  air  through  the  house  and 
between  the  rafters,  thus  driving  out  the  heat;  the  rear 
opening  is  closed  tight  when  the  weather  is  cool  or  cold. 
The  one  in  front  is  closed  in  the  cold  seasons.  The 
house  can  be  built  lower,  or  there  can  be  a  lower  ceiling 
to  make  the  house  warmer  in  cold  weather. 

The  doors  that  lead  from  one  division  to  another  should 
be  hung  on  self-closing  double-acting  hinges.  The  in- 
terior equipment  of  one  apartment  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 


POULTRY  HOUSES  23 

The  nests  are  under  the  dropping-board.  The  coops  for 
broody  hens  are  to  the  right  of  the  roosts,  the  feed 
hopper  is  fastened  against  the  partition  or  hung  on  the 
uprights,  and  the  shelf  for  the  water  pan  is  to  the  right 
of  the  hopper.  The  pan  goes  through  or  under  an  open- 
ing in  the  partition,  thus  providing  for  two  pens  of  fowl. 
A  house  of  this  kind  will  be  excellent  for  bantams, 
and  if  not  more  than  five  or  six  of  them  are  kept  in  each 
yard,  green  stuff  of  some  kind  can  be  grown  in  the 
yards.  Such  pens  can  be  used  for  a  male  and  four  or 
five  female  bantams  of  any  breed  or  variety,  and  the 
hens  should  be  permitted  to  hatch  their  own  eggs  and 
raise  the  brood  of  chicks  in  the  same  enclosure. 


HOUSES  FOR  BANTAMS 

A   house   of   small    size    is   most   suitable   for   bantams. 
The   higher  the  roof   and  the   more   extensive  the   space 


FIG.  7 

inside,  the  colder  and  less  comfortable  will  be  their 
quarters  during  very  cold  nights.  The  box  house  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  7  can  be  built  out  of  packing  cases  that 
are  3l/2  ft.  wide,  Al/2  ft.  long,  and  of  the  average  height, 
the  front  elevation  of  the  building  being  4^  ft.  and  the 
rear  elevation  Zy2  ft.  The  floor  of  the  house,  which  is 
made  .first,  is  4  ft.  wide  and  5  ft.  long,  and  is  elevated 
12  in.  above  the  ground  by  cleats  nailed  all  around  on 
the  under  side  flush  with  the  edge.  The  walls  of  the 
house  are  nailed  to  the  edge  of  the  floor;  the  boards  in 
the  rear  and  on  the  sides  reach  to  the  ground  and  close 


24 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


the  space  under  the  floor  on  three  sides.  In  front,  the 
boards  extend  6  in.  below  the  floor  and  to  within  6  in. 
of  the  ground,  leaving  an  open  space  a  of  12  in.  under 
the  floor.  When  the  siding  is  in  place  the  roof  is  put 
on  and  covered  with  roofing  paper. 

One  8"X10"  pane  of  glass  in  front  admits  all  the 
light  that  is  needed;  the  single-board  door  admits  the  ban- 
tams and  permits  the  gathering  of  the  eggs  and  the 
cleaning  of  the  house.  A  round  roost  pole  across  the 
rear  end  and  some  small  nest  boxes  complete  the  house. 
This  house  will  provide  quarters  for  ten  or  twelve  ban- 
tams. It  can  be  moved  beneath  the  shelter  of  a  tree 
during  the  summer  months,  placed  under  a  shed  or 


FIG.  8 

moved  to  the  basement  during  the  severe  cold  weather, 
or  left  in  the  open  throughout  the  entire  year.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  comfortable  house  for  bantams  in  all  kinds  of 
weather.  The  dust  bath  for  the  bantams  is  beneath  the 
house.  When  the  nights  are  cold  the  open  space  a  in 
front  should  be  closed.  In  localities  where  it  is  very 
cold,  and  where  there  are  spells  of  severe  weather,  the 
outside  of  the  box  should  be  covered  with  tar  paper  to 
close  the  cracks  against  the  wind. 

For  Brahama  or  Cochin  Bantams,  a  low,  compact  house 
is  the  best.  These  bantams  can  withstand  the  coldest 
weather  if  they  are  well  protected  as  are  other  fowls. 
The  house  shown  in  Fig.  8  is  8  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide; 
it  is  6*/2  ft.  high  in  front  and  5  ft.  high  in  the  rear;  the 
fence  for  the  enclosure  is  5  ft.  high.  If  desired,  this 


POULTRY  HOUSES  25 

house  can  be  divided  through  the  middle  and  be  used 
for  two  separate  lots  of  bantams.  When  this  is  done,  a 
division  fence  should  separate  the  two  pens.  The  interior 
of  the  house  may  be  arranged  to  suit  the  convenience  of 
the  poultryman.  The  building  has  a  double  door,  the 
inner  screen  door  a  swinging  to  the  inside  and  the  board 
door  swinging  to  the  outside.  The  outer  door  should  be 
left  open  during  warm  weather  and  on  bright  days  dur- 
ing cold  weather  to  prevent  dampness.  The  house  should 
have  a  board  floor. 


YARDS  FOR  POULTRY  HOUSES 

Purpose  and  Size  pf  Yards.— Fowls  are  confined  in 
yards  to  prevent  them  from  trespassing  and  from  going 
where  they  may  do  harm  or  where  they  may  injure 
themselves.  They  are  also  confined  when  an  effort  is 
being  made  to  secure  a  large  egg  yield  by  intensive 
methods,  and  when  several  varieties  of  fowls  are  kept 
for  breeding  purposes,  in  which  case  the  flocks  must  be 
kept  separate  in  order  that  each  breed  may  remain  pure. 

Yards  cannot  be  too  large  and  are  frequently  too  small. 
Less  than  100  sq.  ft.  of  yard  room  per  head  is  not 
enough  to  secure  the  best  results  in  producing  eggs; 
a  yard  50  ft.  wide  and  100  ft.  long  will  be  sufficient  for 
fifty  hens,  provided  special  care  is  taken  to  keep  the 
soil  in  a  sanitary  condition.  If  the  yard  is  100  ft. 
square,  the  fifty  hens  will  do  much  better.  Two  and 
one-half  acres  will  answer  much  better  for  five  hundred 
hens  in 'one  flock  than  the  same  space  divided  into 
ten  yards  for  fifty  hens  each.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  when  the  five  hundred  hens  are  confined  in  the 
space  of  2l/2  A.,  each  one  has  the  free  range  of  the  entire 
area,  and  when  the  space  is  divided  into  ten  yards,  each 
fowl  is  confined  to  a  space  about  equal  in  size  to  that 
of  an  ordinary  town  lot. 

Close  confinement  causes  the  flock  to  become  discon- 
tented, and  overcrowding  the  yard  lessens  the  egg 
yield.  If  either  one  or  both  of  these  conditions  is  of 


26  POULTRY  HOUSES 

long  duration,  the  health  and  vitality  of  the  fowls  is 
undermined  and  destroyed.  Asiatic  fowls  can  be  kept 
in  health  and  vigor  in  much  less  space  than  can  the 
American  varieties;  Leghorns  must  have  more  than 
double  the  space  that  is  necessary  for  other  varieties. 
These  remarks  apply  to  the  keeping  of  laying  hens  and 
not  to  forcing  a  few  fowls  to  an  early  maturity  for  the 
market  on  a  space  so  limited  that  they  neither  produce 
eggs  nor  maintain  vitality.  The  more  closely  hens  are 
confined,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  cleanliness,  care, 
and  proper  feeding. 


SHADE  FOR  POULTRY 

There  is  a  great  need  of  shade  for  poultry  kept  in 
confined  quarters  during  the  summer  months.  Poultry 
houses  should  face  toward  the  south,  because  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  are  needed  inside  of  poultry  buildings 
to  assist  in  keeping  the  interior  dry  and  free  from  germs. 
But  shade  of  some  kind  must  be  provided  so  that  the 
fowls  can  be  sheltered  during  warm  weather  when  they 
are  in  the  yard  the  greater  part  of  the  day. 

Shade  may  be  furnished  in  a  way  that  will  add  attrac- 
tiveness to  the  poultry  houses  and  yards.  The  fences 
about  the  poultry  yard  should  be  built  straight  and 
strong  and  attractive  in  appearance,  and  they  may  be 
overgrown  with  vines  of  some  kind  which  will  serve  as 
a  shade  and  protect  the  fowls  from  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun. 

There  are  a  number  of  kinds  of  vines  that  can  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  Throughout  Maryland,  Virginia,  and 
other  states  there  are  honeysuckles  that  grow  profusely 
and  can  be  trained  over  the  fences  and  over  frames 
built  for  the  purpose.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the 
rambler  roses  which  can  be  trained  over  the  fences  and 
which  will  beautify  the  surroundings  as  well  as  furnish 
shade.  Sunflowers  may  be  grown  along  the  outside  line 
of  the  fence.  These  grow  rapidly  and  provide  feed  as 
well  as  shelter  from  the  sun. 


POULTRY  HOUSES  27 

Another  vine,  commonly  known  as  Dutchman's  pipe, 
is  a  profuse  grower,  and  is  often  used  as  shade  for  poul- 
try. Hop  vines,  gherkins,  and  morning  glories  also  may 
be  grown  for  the  purpose  of  shelter. 

The  use  of  Jerusalem  artichokes  for  shade  has  been 
recommended  because  they  grow  quickly  and  come  up 
year  after  year,  affording  shade  in  abundance.  It  is 
said  that  this  plant  can  be  grown  inside  of  poultry  yards 
if  protected  until  it  gets  a  good  start,  and  that  fowls 
will  not  eat  the  leaves  even  though  no  other  green  stuff 
is  available.  Castor-oil  plants,  where  they  can  be  pro- 
tected from  disturbance  until  well  started,  will  grow 
profusely  and  become  very  large,  and  will  provide  abun- 
dant shade  beneath  which  the  growing  chicks  may  run 
and  be  protected  during  the  warmest  weather. 

Sweet  corn  makes  a  splendid  shade  for  poultry.  When 
fairly  well  up,  the  mother  hens  and  young  chicks  may 
run  through  it  without  harming  the  plants  or  the  ears 
of  corn.  When  the  corn  is  ready  for  the  table  the  ears 
can  be  removed  without  breaking  the  stalks,  which  con- 
tinue to  furnish  shade.  Corn  fields  on  farms  furnish  a 
most  attractive  shelter  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
and  the  fowls  like  to  wander  through  them  hunting  bugs 
and  worms.  Some  of  the  best  exhibition  fowls  grown 
spend  the  first  few  months  of  their  life  in  the  corn  fields. 

When  no  other  shade  can  be  provided,  awnings  of 
muslin  should  be  stretched  over  frames  and  placed  so 
as  to  prevent  the  sun  from  shining  too  directly  inside 
of  the  poultry  buildings.  Frames  made  like  tables,  with 
the  tops  of  muslin  or  cloth  of  some  kind,  can  be  placed 
here  and  there  to  protect  the  fowls  from  the  sun.  Tar 
paper  or  building  paper  can  be  used  in  place  of  muslin 
for  the  same  purpose. 


UNIT  HOUSE 

The  demand  for  houses  for  large  flocks  has  brought 
into  use  a  style  of  house  that  is  called  the  unit  house. 
A  house  of  this  kind  may  be  built  in  two  or  more  sepa- 


28  POULTRY  HOUSES 

rate  units  20  ft.  long  by  16  or  18  ft.  deep  or  wide.     This 
would   be   called   a   connected   unit  house,    meaning  that 


^Dropping  Board 


=  I  Removable 
=  frames  CCY-    ^  I 
ere d  with    -  ^ 


ffl 


Front  Elevation 
FIG.  9 

several  units  would  be  built  at  one  time  or  at  separate 
times  and  used  as  separate  houses  or  as  one  connected 
house. 

Such  houses  are  built  where  laying  hens  are   kept  in 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


29 


large  or  small  flocks.  The  rule  is  to  build  them  in  mul- 
tiples of  20  ft.  by  whatever  width  or  depth  may  be  pre- 
ferred. Some  unit  poultry  houses  have  been  built  24  ft. 
square,  with  a  gable  roof.  Houses  of  this  width  answer 


-3  ply   Rubberoid  Roofing 


2^6  Rafters^ 
2-0" on  <£ 


Wind  Shield   \ 

I "  Matched^- 

Boards 


FIG.  10 

Well  for  large  flocks  kept  in  California  or  in  any  other 
locality  having  like  temperature.  The  best  width  for 
general  use  is  16  or  18  ft. 

The  most  modern  type  of  a  unit  house  is  shown  in 
Figs.  9  and  10.  This  house  is  20  ft.  long  and  18  ft.  wide 
and  is  9  ft.  high  in  front  and  6  ft.  high  in  the  rear. 


30  POULTRY  HOUSES 

This  house  has  360  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  and  will  be  large 
enough  for  90  Leghorn  hens  kept  for  laying  eggs  during 
the  winter  months.  This  same  house  will  be  large 
enough  for  75  laying  hens  of  the  larger  kind.  The  house 
can  be  divided  by  partition  into  two  pens  10  ft.XIS  ft. 

The  advantage  of  this  kind  of  house  is  that  it  can  be 
built  section  by  section  as  needed.  Two  sections  like 
t'-iese  might  be  called  a  double  connected  unit  house. 
Any  number  of  sections  can  be  added  to  such  a  house 
and  all  of  them  connected.  When  two  or  more  sections 
are  used  for  large  floors,  the  wooden  partition  between 
each  20  ft.  should  extend  about  half  way  forward  from 
the  rear  through  the  house. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  9,  this  house  has  the  modern  style 
of  windows,  that  is,  two  glass  and  three  cotton-cloth 
windows,  which  are  shown  in  the  front  elevation.  These 
windows  are  properly  proportioned  for  a  front  9  ft.  high 
and  20  ft.  long.  If  two  units  of  20  ft.  each  are  built,  the 
cloth-covered  windows  can  begin  either  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left  of  the  glass  windows  and  thus  give  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  glass  and  cloth  windows  or  they  may  be 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  house  can  be  built  7 
or  7/^2  ft.  high  in  front  and  be  either  4^  or  5  ft.  high  in 
the  rear;  the  lower  the  roof  or  ceiling  overhead,  the 
warmer  will  the  house  be  during  both  hot  and  cold 
weather.  The  two  openings  in  the  'rear  shown  in  Fig.  10, 
are  for  ventilation,  and  should  be  open  continually  dur- 
ing the  warm  weather.  The  air  passing  in  through  them 
will  go  over  the  roosts  between  the  inner  lining  and  the 
outer  covering  of  the  rear  wall  and  the  roof.  This  will 
cool  the  house  by  carrying  the  hot  air  out  overhead. 
These  openings  must  be  closed  during  the  winter. 

The  inner  lining  can  be  nailed  to  the  uprights;  it  may 
extend  from  near  the  floor  up  the  rear  and  overhead  in 
front  of  the  roosts  and  dropping-board.  This  protects 
the  fowls  on  the  roost  from  the  cold  that  might  other- 
wise be  deflected  from  the  rear  and  overhead  onto  them. 
Such  protection  is  worth  much  more  than  it  costs.  The 
best  arrangement  for  the  interior  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 


POULTRY  HOUSES  31 

When  houses  like  this  are  built  for  large  flocks  of 
laying  hens,  they  can  be  built  in  sections  20  ft.  long 
and  20  ft.  wide.  Five  sections,  or  units,  of  this  size,  all 
connected,  can  be  used  either  for  one  large  open  house, 
which  will  be  100  ft.  long  and  20  ft.  wide,  or  it  may  be 
divided  into  five  or  more  separate  houses. 

Five  units  of  this  size  will  contain  2,000  sq.  ft.  of  floor 
space,  which  is  sufficient  for  500  Leghorn  hens;  or  they 
may  be  separated  into  five  units,  each  house  having  100 
Leghorn  hens.  Leghorn  hens  will  do  very  well  with 
4  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  for  each  hen.  This  will  provide 
scratching  place  for  the  hens  during  the  winter  months. 
Fowls  of  larger  sizes  should  have  from  5  to  6  sq.  ft.  of 
floor  space. 


HOUSING  PROBLEMS  IN   CALIFORNIA 

When  considering  the  climatic  conditions  of  California 
it  must  be  remembered  that  in  that  state,  which  extends 
from  Oregon  on  the  north  to  Mexico  on  the  south,  great 
variations  in  temperature  are  found.  The  northern  lati- 
tude temperatures  of  California  are  about  the  same  as 
those  of  Denver,  Indianapolis,  and  Philadelphia. 

The  conditions  as  they  exist  in  California  have  been 
described  in  the  following  words  by  Prof.  J.  E. 
Dougherty  of  the  College  of  Agriculture: 

"Abundant  ventilation  can  and  should  be  provided  at 
all  times  of  the  year,  because  the  climate  is  so  mild 
that  cold  weather  does  not  have  to  be  considered, 
whereas  the  intensely  hot  days  of  summer  represent  the 
California  poultryman's  most  unfavorable  season  just  as 
the  cold  winter  period  is  the  worst  season  in  other  states. 
Where  the  temperature  reaches  the  vicinity  of  100°  F.,  a 
house  closed  on  three  sides,  even  though  the  front  is 
entirely  open,  becomes  a  veritable  oven.  Add  to  this  the 
fact  that  a  large  number  of  our  poultry  farms  are,  under 
present  conditions,  supplied  with  very  scant  outdoor 
shade,  And  the  fowls  remain  largely  indoors  out  of  the 
sun  during  the  hot  part  of  the  day,  and  one  can  realize 


POULTRY  HOUSES 

how  they  can  be  made  to  suffer  from  the  heat  in  poorly 
built  houses. 

"The  hot  summer  sun  dries  up  all  vegetation  not  arti- 
ficially watered,  the  ground  becomes  hot  and  dry,  and 
the  fowls  prefer  to  stay  in  and  close  to  the  houses  where 
it  is  shady.  They  will  not  get  out  on  the  sun-baked 
ground,  but  live  largely  in  the  houses  during  hot 
weather.  As  a  result,  a  good  many  fowls  are  lost  every 
year  from  heat  prostration.  In  fact,  such  mortality  rep- 
resents a  serious  loss,  and  its  prevention  is  a  subject 
worthy  of  most  careful  consideration. 

"In  order  to  obviate  the  hot-box  condition,  provision 
must  be  made  to  throw  open  the  rear  of  the  house  on  hot 
days,  in  addition  to  the  open  front,  so  that  every  breath 
of  air  may  be  caught  and  the  air  in  the  house  be  kept 
moving  as  much  as  possible.  There  is  invariably  at  least 
a  little  breeze  blowing  from  one  direction  or  another, 
and  by  having  at  least  two  sides  of  the  house  open 
during  the  day  these  breezes  circulate  through  the  house 
and  keep  it  quite  cool.'* 

Very  heavy  rainfall  accompanied  with  wind  prevails 
during  the  winter  in  California.  These  storms  are  fre- 
quently so  severe  as  to  blow  away  cloth  curtains,  and 
for  this  reason  they  are  not  recommended  as  suitable 
for  that  locality. 

Mr.  Dougherty  says  further  that  trees  in  the  runs  and 
about  the  houses  are  of  great  value  in  furnishing  cool 
shade.  Deciduous  trees  of  heavy  foliage  are  best,  be- 
cause they  furnish  dense  shade  and  shed  their  leaves 
in  winter.  Since  evergreen  trees  do  not  shed  their 
leaves,  they  ought  not  be  located  close  to  the  houses,  as 
they  will  cut  off  the  sun  from  the  houses  in  winter.  Fig 
trees  are  especially  fine  for  shade  in  the  runs.  The  use 
of  two-story  houses  also  makes  for  coolness,  for  the 
upper  story  keeps  the  lower  floor  cooler  than  it  would 
•otherwise  be,  and  by  hanging  windows  on  all  sides  of 
the  lower  floor  the  additional  coolness  resulting  from  free 
ventilation  on  all  sides  is  secured.  » 

A  good  type  of  house  for  California  is  a  square  house, 


POULTRY  HOUSES  33 

say  24  ft.  square,  or  one  48  ft.  long  by  24  ft.  wide,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  fowls  to  be  kept  in  the  house. 
This  house  should  be  9  ft.  high  all  around  with  a  gable 
roof,  and  have  glass  windows  on  all  four  sides.  All  of 
these  windows  should  be  kept  open  when  the  days  are 
very  warm. 

If  the  wind  blows,  the  windows  should  be  shut  tight 
on  the  side  from  which  the  wind  conies.  When  it  rains 
and  blows  very  hard,  all  the  windows  in  the  house 
should  be  closed  except  those  on  one  side  against  which 
the  wind  does  not  blow;  that  is,  if  the  wind  blows  from 
the  northeast  the  windows  on  the  north,  the  east,  and 
the  west  would  be  closed  and  the  windows  on  the  south 
left  open.  If  the  wind  blows  from  the  southwest,  the 
windows  on  the  north  would  be  left  open  and  the  other 
windows  be  closed  tight. 

When  a  house  of  this  kind  is  used,  the  roosts  should 
be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  room  lengthwise,  directly 
under  the  peak  of  the  roof.  The  dropping-board  should 
be  built  on  legs  like  a  low-set  table,  the  roosts  running 
lengthwise  above  the  table,  with  the  nest  boxes 
beneath  it. 

Such  a  house  should  have  ventilators  in  the  peak  of 
the  roof;  those  of  galvanized  iron  with  hoods  over  the 
top  are  well  suited  for  this  purpose.  Such  ventilators 
will  work  well  during  all  kinds  of  weather.  When  it  is 
warm  and  hot,  the  air  will  pass  out  through  them.  When 
the  wind  blows  it  causes  a  current  around  the  hood  and 
the  pipe;  when  the  rain  falls  hard  the  hood-shaped  lid 
on  top  will  prevent  the  rain  from  beating  down  through 
the  ventilator.  Through  these  ventilators  the  warm  air 
comes  out  of  the  upper  end  of  the  pipe  and  passes 
through  the  open  space  between  the  top  of  the  pipe  and 
the  lower  side  of  the  hood. 


34  POULTRY  FOODS 

POULTRY  FOODS 


COMPOSITION   OF  FOOD 

Food  is  any  substance  that  a  plant  or  an  animal  may 
take  into  its  body  and  use  for  building  up  wasted 
tissues  and  maintaining  natural  conditions.  Besides 
•water,  which  is  present  in  all  foods,  the  different  com- 
pounds of  which  solid  animal  foods  are  composed  have 
been  grouped  into  four  classes;  carbohydrates,  fats,  pro- 
tein, and  ash.  All  the  compounds  belonging  to  these 
classes  of  food  elements,  or  principles,  are  not  completely 
digestible,  and  the  value  of  poultry  food  is  determined 
largely  by  the  amount  of  these  food  constituents  that 
can  be  digested  by  the  fowls. 

When  food  is  digested  it  forms  blood,  which  circulates 
throughout  the  body  and  sustains  life.  By  means  of 
the  blood  the  nutritious  portions  of  the  food  are  assimi- 
lated, or  incorporated  into  the  body  of  the  fowl  for  the 
purpose  of  nourishing  it  and  for  renewing  wasted  tissues. 
Eggs  are  composed  largely  of  the  same  kind  of  materials 
that  are  utilized  in  the  formation  of  blood  and  flesh. 

All  foods  contain  water;  dry  grains,  meals,  and  hays 
contain  from  7  to  10%,  and  grasses,  green  plants,  roots, 
and  unripened  grains  contain  from  60  to  70%.  The  flesh 
of  fowls  and  their  eggs  are  from  41  to  65%  water,  1  doz. 
new-laid  eggs  containing  almost  1  Ib. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  solid  part  of  poultry  food 
is  composed  of  carbohydrates,  or  nitrogen-free  extracts,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called.  Carbohydrates  are  made  up 
largely  of  starch,  sugar,  gums,  vegetable  acids,  and  crude 
fiber.  Carbohydrates  are  used  by  fowls  to  supply  energy, 
to  produce  animal  fats  and  oils,  and  to  maintain  the 
body  heat. 

The  food  elements  known  as  fats,  or  oils,  differ  from 
carbohydrates  in  being  able  to  produce  more  heat.  For 
this  purpose,  1  part  of  fat  is  equal  to  2^4  parts  of  carbo- 


POULTRY  FOODS  35 

hydrates.  For  this  reason,  when  estimating  the  heating 
value  of  foods,  it  is  customary  to  multiply  the  amount 
of  fat  in  them  by  2%  in  order  to  express  its  equivalent 
in  carbohydrates. 

That  portion  of  the  food  which  contains  nitrogen  is 
known  as  protein.  The  lean  meat  of  the  fowl  and  the 
white  of  the  egg  are  composed  largely  of  this  principle. 
As  a  source  of  heat  and  energy,  protein  is  about  equal 
to  the  carbohydrates,  but  animal  heat  obtained  from 
protein  is  very  expensive.  Protein  is  much  more  costly 
than  the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  and  no  more  of  it  should 
be  fed  to  fowls  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  renew 
waste,  make  new  growth,  and  furnish  the  needed  quan- 
tity for  egg  formation. 

That  part  of  food  which  would  be  left  if  the  food 
were  burned  is  called  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  and  it  con- 
tains calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium,  iron,  and 
other  elements.  When  assimilated  by  fowls,  ash  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  bones  and  the  shells  of 
the  eggs.  There  is  not  enough  ash  for  egg  and  bone 
formation  in  the  food  usually  fed  to  fowls,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  necessary  to  supply  them  with  such  mate- 
rials as  oyster  shells,  clam  shells,  limestone,  grit,  etc. 

Foods  that  contain  a  large  proportion  of  crude  fiber 
are  spoken  of  as  roughage,  and  those  that  contain  little 
crude  fiber  and  that  are  nearly  all  digestible  are  known 
as  concentrates.  Clover  hay  is  an  example  of  roughage; 
corn  meal  is  an  example  of  a  concentrate.  Although  of 
little  direct  value  as  a  food  for  poultry,  roughage,  or 
crude  fiber,  is  important  in  a  food  because  in  passing 
through  the  digestive  organs  it  distends  them  and  serves 
as  an  irritant  that  stimulates  their  mechanical  action 
and  assists  them  in  digesting  their  contents. 

When  feeding  fowls  it  is  always  best  to  have  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  ash,  fiber,  and  roughage  in  their 
rations  to  extend  the  crop  and  to  keep  the  gizzard 
actively  employed  in  grinding.  During  the  process  of 
grinding  the  coarso  foods  become  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  concentrated  foods  and  all  pass  through  the  intes- 


36  POULTRY  FOODS 

tines  in  a  manner  that  makes  their  assimilation  much 
more  natural  and,  therefore,  of  more  real  benefit  to  the 
fowls  than  would  be  the  case  without  them. 

Clover  and  alfalfa  hay  and  bran  are  very  highly  con- 
sidered as  roughage  for  poultry,  and  they  not  only  well 
serve  the  purposes  mentioned  but  are  also  valuable  as 
food.  Clover  and  alfalfa  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
ash  and  fiber  and  are  among  the  best  substitutes  for 
green  food  as  well;  although  but  little  of  the  bran  is 
digested,  it  is  most  valuable  as  an  intestinal  irritant. 

When  feeding  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  it  is  well  to  throw 
bundles  of  it  into  the  houses  on  the  litter  and  permit 
the  fowls  to  pick  the  leaves  and  scratch  in  the  hay  as 
they  do  in  the  litter. 

Uses  of  the  Food  Elements.— After  being  digested  and 
absorbed  into  the  blood,  the  different  food  elements 
are  used  by  the  body  for  various  purposes.  From  protein 
are  formed  the  muscles,  or  lean  meat,  and  this  element 
also  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  bones 
and  feathers,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  egg. 
Protein  can  be  more  completely  utilized  than  the  other 
food  elements  and  some  hens  seem  to  have  the  power 
to  utilize  practically  all  of  the  protein  contained  in  the 
food  they  eat. 

Carbohydrates  are  mainly  used  to  keep  up  the  body 
temperature.  The  utilization  of  carbohydrates  for  this 
purpose  is  really  a  slow  form  of  burning,  which  is  just 
as  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  fowl  as  the  fire  beneath 
the  boiler  is  for  the  running  of  the  steam  engine.  Car- 
bohydrates are  also  the  source  of  much  of  the  energy 
used  when  the  fowl  moves  itself  about  and  performs 
other  work. 

The  function  of  fats  is  similar  to  that  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates. Fats,  however,  are  a  more  concentrated  fuel, 
1  Ib.  of  fat  being  equal  to  about  2J4  lb.  of  carbohydrates. 
Fats  can  also  be  stored  for  future  use  in  the  fowl's  body, 
a  thing  that  cannot  be  done  with  carbohydrates. 


POULTRY  FOODS 
COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDSTUFFS 


37 


Feedstuffs 

Water 
Per  Cent. 

Ash 
Per  Cent. 

i<§ 
*& 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 
Per  Cent. 

£» 

Icj 

gl 

8 

^V  * 

m 

!*iE 

£ 

Grains  and  seeds: 
Barley  

10.8 
13.4 
10.6 
11.3 
8.4 
9.9 
12.1 
9.0 
10.4 
7.9 
15.0 
7.5 
12.4 
11.7 
8.0 
8.6 
10.5 
11.6 

10.9 
12.8 
9.4 
15.0 
7.0 
10.3 
9.9 
9.2 
9.5 
9.6 

9.7 

9.8 
7.9 

2.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.4 
3.9 
1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
3.2 
2.0 
2.4 
2.4 
.4 
4.8 
3.9 
2.6 
1.8 
2.9 

5.7 
5.0 
1.2 
1.4 
6.6 
5.9 
2.6 
2.0 
1.5 
2.7 

5.5 
5.5 
2.0 

12.0 
10.8 
10.3 
10.5 
11.5 
11.2 
10.9 
10.7 
11.4 
14.7 
23.7 
27.9 
7.4 
33.5 
11.5 
16.3 
11.9 
12.5 

23.2 
26.7 
11.2 
9.2 
45.3 
19.7 
18.0 
25.0 
33.8 
10.5 

37.5 
33.9 
14.7 

4.2 
11.7 
2.2 
1.7 
11.1 
2.7 
8.1 
3.0 
10.8 
.9 
7.9 
7.0 
.2 
4.5 
11.5 
29.9 
1.8 
4.9 

3.8 
4.4 
11.9 
1.9 
6.3 
14.4 
3.0 
6.8 
2.0 
4.9 

8.9 
7.3 
.9 

68.7 
59.7 
70.4 
70.1 
62.9 
71.5 
62.6 
72.2 
59.4 
67.4 
50.2 
15.6 
79.2 
28.3 
62.9 
21.4 
71.9 
65.1 

54.9 
44.3 
60.1 
68.7 
24.6 
38.7 
62.5 
53.5 
46.6 
64.3 

36.4 
35.7 
67.4 

1.8 
2.4 
5.0 
5.0 
2.2 
3.1 
3.5 
2.8 
4.8 
7.1 
.8 
39.6  • 
.4 
17.2 
2.2 
21.2 
2.1 
3.0 

1.5 
6.8 
6.2 
3.8 
10.2 
11.0 
4.0 
3.5 
6.6 
8.0 

2.0 

7.8 
7.1 

Buckwheat  
Corn,  dent  

Corn,  flint 

Emmer  

Kafir  corn  

Millet  seed         .    .  ' 

Milo  maize  

Oats  in  hulls 

Oats,  hulled  

Peas,  Canada  

Peanut  kernels  

Rice 

Soybeans       

Spelt  

Sunflower  seed.   . 

Wheat,  whole  

Wheat  screenings  
Meals: 
Bean  meal  

Buckwheat  middlings.  . 
Corn  bran  

Corn  meal 

Cottonseed  meal  . 

Coconut  cake  
Flour,  red  dog  
Gluten  feed  

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  feed,  chop.  .  .  . 
Linseed  meal,  new  proc- 
ess    

Linseedmeal.old  process 
Oatmeal  

38  POULTRY  FOODS 

COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDSTUFFS— Continued 


Feedstuflte 

Water 
tPer  Cent. 

Ash 
Per  Cent. 

Protein 
Per  Cent. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 
Per  Cent. 

t-.  & 

£  <u 
.00 

Sl 

<u 

2     ^ 

*ts  g 

g2U 
60  1<  *" 
2w  & 

% 

Meals: 
Oat  middlings  

8.8 
10.7 
10.5 
9.7 
10.2 
11.2 
11.3 
10.8 
11.9 

8.5 
6.0 
34.2 
90.2 
10.8 
10.7 
87  1 

4.5 
4.9 
2.6 
9.7 
8.1 
4.4 
5.9 
6.7 
5.8 

4.6 
37.4 

22.8 
.7 
29.2 
4.1 

.7 

.7 

10.6 
4.5 
1.0 
1.0 
8.1 
.9 
.5 
1.1 
.9 

16.2 
47.6 
20.2 
11.9 
12.0 
16.9 
42.7 
32.8 
15.4 

84.4 
39.5 
20.6 
4.0 
48.4 
71.2 
3.6 
3.1 

15.4 
8.1 
1.5 
1.1 
16.32 
2.1 
1.3 
1.9 
1.3 

7.1 
5.1 
14.4 
12.0 
5.4 
6.2 
6.0 
13.5 
9.0 

33.3 
17.5 
.9 
1.3 

17.84 
.4 
1.7 
1.2 
1.2 

56.5 
23.7 
51.1 
46.6 
51.2 
56.2 
28.1 
27.1 
53.9 

6.3 
1.9 
4.0 

.3 

4.9 
5.3 

32.5 
60.8 
8.0 
7.6 
45.99 
17.4 
5.2 
26.8 
6.3 

6.9 
8.0 
1.2 
10.1 
13.1 
5.1 
6.0 
9.1 
4.0 

2.5 
10.8 
20.5 
1.1 
11.6 
13.7 
3.7 
.3 

1.4 
.7 
.1 
.4 
1.75 
.1 
.4 
.7 
.2 

Peanut  cake  

Pea  meal        

Rice  bran  

Rice  meal  .    . 

Shorts  

Soybean  cake  
Sunflower-seed  cake  .  .  . 
Wheat  bran 

Animal  foods: 
Blood,  dried  

Bone  and  meat  meal  .  . 
Bone,  fresh  cut  
Buttermilk  
Fish,  dried  
Meat  scrap  

Milk  whole 

Milk  skim          

90.6 

6.8 

8.4 
88.5 
88.6 
10.0 
79.1 
90.9 
68.3 
90.1 

Hav  and  vegetables: 
Alfalfa  hay 

Beet  pulp,  dry  

Beets  

Carrots                    .    .  .~  . 

Clover  hay  

Potatoes       

Pumpkins 

Sweet  potatoes  
Turnips 

The     preceding    table     gives     the     average     composition 
of  various  poultry  foods. 


POULTRY  FOODS  39 

SEEDS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

Foods  the  quality  of  which  is  unquestionably  good  are 
the  most  economical  for  poultry.  Shriveled,  immature, 
or  imperfect  grains  do  not  contain  the  full  amounts  of 
digestible  nutrients,  and  such  grains  are  likely  to  be 
deficient  in  protein.  When  the  best  results  are  desired 
none  except  good,  plump,  mature  grains  are  used.  The 
same  principle  applies  in  selecting  the  by-products  of 
grains. 

The  relative  value  of  poultry  foods  can  best  be  esti- 
mated when  the  food  value  of  each  is  well  understood. 
It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  buy  the  foods  rich  in 
protein  than  those  lacking  in  this  valuable  principle. 

WHEAT 

Whole  Wheat.— A  grain  of  wheat  is  made  up  of  an 
outer  shell,  an  inner  lining,  and  a  food  center,  its 
structure  in  a  general  way  resembling  that  of  an  egg. 
The  shell  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  composed  largely  of 
crude  fiber;  the  central  part  contains  some  protein,  but 
consists  mainly  of  starch.  The  protein,  or  gluten,  of  the 
wheat  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  it,  and  no  other  grain 
will  fill  the  place  of  wheat  as  a  food  for  the  production 
of  lean  meat  and  eggs  by  fowls.  Wheat  is  rich  in  both 
protein  and  the  fat-forming  principles,  but  it  is  a  better 
food  for  making  blood,  flesh,  and  feathers  than  for  fat- 
tening purposes;  hence,  it  is  a  better  food  for  egg- 
producing  hens  than  for  those  intended  for  the  market. 
Wheat  is  commonly  one  of  the  several  grains  used  in 
making  up  a  ration  for  fowls.  Although  the  best  whole 
grain  for  hens,  it  does  not  form  a  perfect  ration  when 
fed  alone. 

Second  grades  of  wheat  can  be  purchased  at  a  lower 
price  than  the  higher  grades.  If  they  are  sound  and 
have  good  feeding  qualities,  these  second-grade  wheats 
can  be  used  to  advantage;  but  if  they  are  shriveled  or 
blighted,  they  have  little  value.  Burned,  wet,  musty,  or 


40 


POULTRY  FOODS 


otherwise    damaged    grains    are    not    fit    for    feeding    to 
poultry. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  digestibility  of  the 
various  food  principles  found  in  wheat  of  good  quality. 
Although  about  20%  of  its  dry  matter  is  indigestible, 
wheat,  on  account  of  its  palatability,  is  the  best  possible 
whole-grain  food  for  fowls. 

DIGESTIBLE  MATTER  IN  WHEAT 


Parts  of  Wheat 

Per 
Cent. 
Digest- 
ible 

Parts  of  Wheat 

Per 

Cent. 
Digest- 
ible 

Organic  matter  

81.86 

Crude  fiber  

None 

Protein.  . 

77  12 

Carbohydrates 

86  59 

Fat 

39  67 

Wheat  Screenings.— The  value  of  wheat  screenings  as 
a  food  depends  on  the  quantity  of  weed  seeds  and  other 
materials  that  are  mixed  with  the  wheat  of  inferior 
quality.  Good  wheat  screenings  have  a  food  value  equal 
to  that  of  oats;  screenings  of  poor  quality  have  a  food 
value  that  may  be  less  than  that  of  oat  hulls  or  straw. 
Although  fowls  will  eat  a  large  portion  of  the  weed 
seeds  in  screenings,  many  of  them  have  no  food  value. 
Wheat  screenings  as  a  food  for  poultry  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  an  animal  food  and  corn. 

Wheat  Bran. — The  amount  of  gluten  contained  in 
wheat  bran,  which  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  flour,  determines  its  value  as  an  egg-producing  food. 
If  the  bran  has  the  appearance  of  being  kiln-dried,  it 
probably  contains  so  little  digestible  material  that  it 
is  worthless  as  a  food  for  hens.  As  dry  bran  free  from 
gluten  is  practically  all  crude  fiber,  it  is  valuable  only 
as  a  bulky  substance  for  distending  the  intestines  so 
that  concentrated  foods  may  be  digested. 


POULTRY  FOODS  41 

Middlings  and  Shorts.— The  terms  middlings  and  shorts 
are  applied  to  by-products  of  the  manufacture  of  flour. 
Wheat  middlings  are  made  from  the  membrane  that  lies 
between  the  outer  shell  and  the  starchy  interior  of  the 
wheat  kernel;  they  contain  some  gluten,  a  substance 
composed  largely  of  protein.  Shorts  as  usually  sold  are 
made  up  of  small,  or  ground,  bran  and  wheat  sweepings. 
Thirds,  or  fine  shorts,  are  middlings  of  good  quality. 
Middlings  are  worth  more  than  bran  and  are  much  used 
in  making  dry-mash  rations. 

Flour.— When  it  can  be  cheaply  obtained,  the  lower 
grade  of  dark  flour  is  sometimes  used  for  feeding  to 
poultry.  This  flour  is  rich  in  protein  and  other  food 
principles,  and  can  be  mixed  with  middlings  and  corn 
meal.  The  resulting  mixture  may  then  be  baked  like 
bread  and  fed  to  young  or  growing  chicks.  A  small 
quantity  of  this  flour  mixed  with  mash  forms  a  crumbly 
mass. 

OATS 

Whole  Oats.— The  determination  of  the  value  of  whole 
oats  by  their  appearance  is  exceedingly  difficult.  Good 
oats  rank  next  to  wheat  as  a  poultry  food,  but  the  one 
objection  to  oats  is  that  they  vary  widely  in  the  propor- 
tion of  hulls,  or  husks,  which  are  indigestible.  Some 
oats  are  two-fifths  husks,  which  are  of  no  value  as  food. 
The  weight  of  oats  varies  from  25  to  50  Ib.  per  bu.  Light 
oats  are  unfit  for  food  for  fowls;  heavy  oats  with  full, 
plump  kernels  are  one  of  the  very  best.  Hulled  oats  are 
preferable  for  feeding  poultry;  heavy-weight  clipped 
oats  stand  next  in  value;  ground  oats  of  the  best  quality 
are  also  an  excellent  food  for  poultry. 

Oatmeal  and  Hulled  Oats.— In  the  manufacture  of  both 
oatmeal  and  hulled  oats,  which  have  the  same  nutritive 
ratio,  the  hulls  are  removed;  consequently,  the  food  value 
of  both  oatmeal  and  hulled  oats  is  greater  than  that  of 
whole  oats.  Oats  thus  prepared  are  extensively  used  in 
making  rations  for  young  or  growing  chicks.  Whole 
oats  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  to  6;  hulled  oats  and 
oatmeal,  1  to  4.  (By  nutritive  ratio  is  meant  the  ratio 


42  POULTRY  FOODS 

between  the  protein  and  the  total  of  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates.) Consequently,  prepared  oats  are  better  than 
whole  oats  as  food  for  young  chicks  and  laying  hens. 
Either  hulled  oats  or  oatmeal  is  one  of  the  best  single- 
grain  rations  for  fowls. 

Oat  Hulls. — As  'a  poultry  food,  oat  hulls,  apart  from 
their  value  as  manure,  which  is  small,  are  worth  no 
more  than  sawdust.  Ground  oat  hulls  are  liberally  used 
as  an  adulterant  to  lessen  the  cost  of  other  foods  in 
preparing  poultry  feeds,  and  the  presence  of  much  of 
this  adulterant  may  so  reduce  the  value  of  the  feed  as 
to  make  it  useless. 

CORN 

Whole  Corn.— The  structure  of  the  corn  kernel  is 
similar  in  a  general  way  to  that  of  the  wheat  grain. 
Corn  is  the  grain  that  is  ordinarily  the  most  attractive 
to  poultry.  Some  corn  is  almost  a  necessity  for  suc- 
cessful poultry  feeding,  but  an  all-corn  ration  is 
injurious  because  it  is  too  fattening.  Corn  alone,  how- 
ever, will  not  fatten  a  fowl  in  the  best  way,  nor  will 
it  produce  a  good  yield  of  eggs.  Corn  is  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats;  it  provides  heat  for  the  body,  and 
oil  and  fat  for  the  feathers,  for  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  and 
for  the  flesh.  Corn  contains  too  little  protein  and  ash 
for  successful  egg  production,  and  to  produce  the  best 
results  is  combined  with  other  grains.  A  balanced 
ration  is  formed  by  the  use  of  corn  and  some  other 
•grains  and  meat. 

Corn  Bran.— The  outside  of  the  grain,  or  the  shell, 
from  which  corn  bran  is  made,  is  removed  from  corn 
when  it  is  made  into  food  products  for  human  beings. 
This  shell  is  hard  and  dry  and  has  almost  no  food  value, 
being  composed  almost  entirely  of  indigestible  fiber  and 
a  little  ash,  and  is,  therefore,  of  no  use  in  poultry 
rations. 

Gluten  Meals  and  Feeds. — Gluten,  a  by-product  of  corn- 
starch  manufacture,  is  sometimes  sold  as  gluten  meal, 
and  is  a  very  important  food  for  dairy  cows.  Good 


POULTRY  FOODS  43 

gluten  meal  that  does  not  contain  corn  hulls  or  other 
waste  products  is  also  useful  as  a  part  of  the  meal  ration 
for  poultry.  Gluten  meal  is  a  concentrated  food,  rich  in 
protein,  nearly  all  of  which  is  digestible.  Not  more 
than  10%  of  a  ration  should  consist  of  this  meal. 

The  germ  of  the  corn  is  rarely  sold  separate  from  the 
other  by-products.  Like  gluten  meal,  it  should  be  fed 
sparingly  to  fowls. 

Gluten  feed,  which  is  much  more  commonly  sold  than 
either  gluten  meal  or  the  corn  germs,  is  made  by  grind- 
ing the  germs,  hulls,  and  gluten  together.  Gluten  feed, 
although  not  so  rich  in  protein  as  either  the  gluten  meal 
or  corn  germs,  should  not  be  fed  too  liberally  to  poultry. 

Hominy  Chop.— Hominy  is  made  from  the  hard  or 
flinty  part  of  the  corn.  The  hulls,  corn  germs,  and  some 
gluten  left  after  the  hominy  is  made,  are  ground  into 
coarse  meal  and  sold  as  hominy  chop,  which,  if  of 
good  quality,  is  fully  equal  in  value  to  corn  meal  as  a 
poultry  food.  Like  the  value  of  all  grain  by-products, 
the  value  of  hominy  chop  depends  on  its  quality,  and 
it  should  not  contain  too  much  crude  fiber. 

Corn  Cobs.— The  coarse  meal  made  from  corn  cobs 
cannot  be  prepared  in  any  way  that  fits  it  for  food. 
It  has  about  the  same  chemical  composition  as  straw, 
and  as  food  for  poultry  both  corn  cobs  and  straw  are 
valueless. 

MISCELLANEOUS  GRAINS  AND  SEEDS 
Kafir  Corn.— Both  Kafir  corn,  or  dari,  and  broom  corn 
belong  to  the  sorghum  family  of  plants.  The  fact  that 
Kafir  corn  is  used  largely  as  food  by  people  of  Africa 
and  in  other  countries  is  evidence  of  its  nutritive  value, 
Kafir  corn  being,  in  this  respect,  about  equal  to  barley 
or  buckwheat.  Kafir-corn  grains  are  very  hard;  tests 
made  by  the  feeding  of  old,  very  dry  grains  to  fowls 
show  that  many  of  them  passed  through  the  fowls  with- 
out being  broken  up.  The  same  grains  resisted  for  a 
time  an  effort  to  soften  them  by  boiling.  When  broken 
into  bits,  however,  the  small  pieces  could  be  eaten  and 


44  POULTRY  FOODS 

digested  by  young  chicks.  In  some  localities  where 
bugs  and  worms  are  plentiful,  the  entire  grain  ration 
for  the  summer  months  is  Kafir  corn,  a  plentiful  supply 
of  insect  food  with  this  kind  of  grain  making  a  nearly 
balanced  ration.  Kafir  corn  can  be  used  with  safety  in 
the  ration  for  the  full-grown  fowls,  and,  if  broken  into 
small  pieces,  for  chicks  as  well. 

Broom  Corn.— The  seed  of  broom  corn  as  a  food  for 
poultry  is  about  equal  in  value  to  sunflower  seed. 
Broom  corn  is  fed  sparingly;  a  ration  containing  more 
than  10%  of  this  grain  cannot  be  fed  with  safety  to 
fowls.  In  order  to  avoid  fermentation  and  mildew,  the 
heads  of  the  grain  are  spread  out  and  kept  in  a  dry 
place.  Cryptogamic  poisoning  is  liable  to  be  produced  by 
the  eating  of  moldy  grain  or  seed  of  any  kind. 

Rye.— The  use  of  rye  as  a  food  for  poultry  should  be 
avoided;  fowls  do  not  relish  it  and  bad  results  may  come 
from  its  use. 

Barley.— The  grains  of  barley,  if  plump  and  of  good 
quality,  contain  almost  as  much  protein  as  oats,  more 
than  corn,  and  more  of  the  carbohydrates  than  oats  but 
not  so  much  as  corn.  Good  barley  is  about  15%  hulls; 
poor  barley  may  have  a  much  larger  percentage  of  hulls, 
and  the  grains  themselves  may  be  so  shriveled  as  to  be 
valueless  as  food.  Good  barley  meal  is  useful  for  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  meal  ration  for  fattening  fowls.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  meals  for  this  purpose;  but  the  ordinary 
barley  meals  are  likely  to  be  made  of  a  mixture  of 
barley  and  waste  products,  which  tend  to  deprive  the 
meal  of  its  feeding  value. 

Buckwheat.— Fowls  have  to  acquire  a  liking  for  buck- 
wheat; they  are  not  naturally  fond  of  it,  and  as  the 
hull,  which  forms  a  large  percentage  of  this  grain,  is 
indigestible,  buckwheat  is  not  good  as  a  single-grain 
ration.  Buckwheat  whitens  the  flesh  and  improves  its 
flavor  when  fed  liberally  to  fowls.  The  yolks  of  eggs 
from  hens  fed  freely  on  buckwheat  are  light  in  color. 
Although  a  small  quantity  of  buckwheat  may  be  used 


POULTRY  FOODS  45 

as  a  part  of  an  all-grain  ration,  it  is  not  classed  as  a 
desirable  grain  for  fowls. 

Buckwheat  Middlings.— The  hulls  of  buckwheat  have 
no  feeding  value,  but  in  some  localities  they  are  used 
as  litter  in  buildings  and  brooders.  Buckwheat  mid- 
dlings are  superior  to  wheat  bran  and  wheat  middlings 
as  a  food  for  fowls,  and  this  fact  brings  into  the  market 
buckwheat  bran,  which  is  largely  broken  hulls  mixed  with 
buckwheat  middlings.  Although  the  floury  middlings  of 
buckwheat  are  fit  for  poultry  food,  the  bran  of  this  grain 
contains  no  nutriment  and  is  useless  for  food  purposes. 

Peas. — Although  fowls  relish  pea  vines,  they  must 
acquire  a  liking  for  peas  themselves,  which  are  very 
good  food.  The  field  pea,  or  Canada  pea,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  largely  used  as  food  for  pigeons,  and  on 
the  whole  is  probably  the  best  pea  for  other  kinds  of 
poultry.  Low-priced,  broken  peas,  if  cooked,  can  at 
times  be  used  to  advantage.  When  they  have  been 
thoroughly  softened  by  boiling,  wheat  bran  is  added  to 
them  to  make  a  crumbly  mass;  a  little  flour  put  with 
the  bran  will  help  to  make  the  mass  stick  together.  A 
mixture  prepared  in  this  way  is  greedily  devoured  by 
hens,  and  is  an  excellent  egg-producing  ration.  Pea 
meal  is  a  concentrated  food  that  should  be  sparingly 
used.  Peas  or  pea  meal  added  to  a  fattening  ration 
improve  the  quality  of  the  lean  meat. 

Beans. — As  a  food  for  poultry,  beans  are  more  nutri- 
tious than  peas.  Bean  vines  are  not  so  well  liked  as  the 
pea  vines,  nor  will  the  fowls  eat  beans  as  long  as  they 
have  other  food  before  them.  Soybeans  contain  much 
protein  and  ash;  because  of  this  fact  they  are  valuable 
food  for  fowls.  Beans  should  be  boiled  to  a  soft  mush 
and  mixed  with  corn  meal  and  bran;  this  preparation 
makes  an  egg-producing  ration.  If  sufficient  corn  meal 
is  added,  a  fat-forming  ration  that  will  produce  a  good 
quality  of  table  meat  is  made.  Fowls  are  naturally 
attracted  to  a  mixture  of  this  kind.  Like  other  cooked 
foods,  boiled  beans  may  be  fed  to  fowls  while  warm, 
but  never  while  hot. 


46  POULTRY  FOODS 

Rice.— Rice  is  a  fat-forming  food  that  is  little  used 
for  poultry.  Small  or  broken  rice,  however,  may  be  used 
in  chick  feed  to  advantage.  Boiled  rice  is  a  good  food 
for  bantams  because  it  produces  so  little  bone  and  size; 
it  satisfies  hunger  but  does  not  produce  growth  to  any 
extent.  It  is  an  expensive  food  for  fowls. 

Millet. — The  seed  of  the  foxtail  millet  is  a  rich  grain 
that  should  not  be  fed  liberally  to  poultry.  When 
thrown  into  litter,  the  small*  bright-colored  seeds  attract 
the  fowls.  A  ration  made  up  entirely  of  millet  will 
destroy  young  chicks  and  injure  old  fowls.  This  seed 
is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  chick  feeds,  and  also  in 
scratching  foods  for  hens.  Millet  is  a  fattening  food  and 
when  hard,  dry  millet  seed  is  liberally  fed,  it  may  clog 
the  intestines  or  pass  through  them  undigested. 

Sorghum  Seed.— The  food  value  of  the  seed  from  sugar- 
producing  sorghum  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  seed 
of  broom  corn,  but  sorghum  seed  is  more  fattening  than 
the  broom-corn  seed,  and  contains  a  little  less  protein 
than  that  seed.  Sorghum  plants  that  make  good  green 
food  for  fowls  are  grown  from  sorghum  seed  sown  broad- 
cast or  drilled  into  the  ground. 

Sunflower  Seed.— Sunflower  seed  has  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  1  to  7,  about  the  same  as  wheat;  but  the  digestibility 
of  sunflower  seed  has  not  yet  been  accurately  deter- 
mined. It  is  likely  that  the  larger  part  of  sunflower 
seeds  are  indigestible.  The  kernels  have  a  pleasant 
flavor  and  contain  considerable  fat,  but  when  dry  and 
shriveled  their  food  value  is  small.  Fresh,  plump  sun- 
flower seeds  are  used  to  advantage  by  sparingly  feeding 
them  to  fowls  in  molt;  if  these  seeds  are  liberally  fed, 
the 'digestive  organs  of  fowls  soon  become  clogged  with 
indigestible  fiber. 

Flaxseed.— Of  all  the  grains  and  seeds  fed  to  poultry, 
flaxseed  is  the  richest  in  oil  and  protein.  Its  use  is 
seldom  necessary,  because  equal  benefit  can  be  derived 
by  using  by-products  of  seeds  that  are  much  less  ex- 
pensive. Flaxseed  is  a  laxative,  but  contains  so  much 
gluten  that  it  may  clog  the  digestive  organs. 


POULTRY  FOODS 


47 


Linseed  Meal.— There  are  two  kinds  of  linseed  meal 
—old  process  and  new  process.  The  latter  contains  less 
protein  and  is  more  fattening  than  the  former.  There 
is  very  little  old-process  meal  made  at  the  present  time. 
Linseed  meal  contains  the  feather-forming  elements  to 
a  large  extent  and  is  valuable  during  molt;  it  can  be 
cautiously  fed  at  all  times.  Fowls  do  not  favor  it  as 
a  food;  it  is  laxative,  concentrated,  and  contains  so 
much  gluten  that  it  will  clog  the  crop  if  used  too 
liberally.  The  quantity  of  linseed  meal  used  should  not 
exceed  5%  of  the  entire  ration. 

Cottonseed  Meal.— Even  when 
fed  sparingly,  cottonseed  meal 
is  not  relished  by  fowls.  Neither 
cottonseed  nor  any  of  its  prod- 
ucts should  ever  be  fed  to  fowls, 
as  these  foods  act  as  irritants  to 
the  digestive  organs,  and  if  fed 
liberally  cause  death. 

Peanut  Meal.  —  Meal  made 
from  peanuts  after  the  oil  has 
been  extracted  is  a  good  food 
for  poultry.  It  is  a  palatable 
food  and  can  be  used  in  small 
quantities  with  other  fattening 
meals.  An  ounce  and  a  half  of 
peanut  meal  has  about  the  same 
food  value  as  1  oz.  of  the  best  meat  scrap.  There  is  so 
little  of  this  meal  that  it  cannot  often  be  used  as  food 
for  poultry. 

Hemp  Seed.— Hemp  seed  contains  more  fat  and  less 
fiber  than  sunflower  seed;  for  this  reason,  it  is  more 
easily  digested  and  gives  better  results  than  sunflower 
seed.  Hemp  seed  is  a  stimulating,  fat-forming  food, 
and  is  fed  in  small  quantities  and  only  to  fowls  that 
are  slow  to  molt.  A  small  quantity  of  this  seed  is  also 
fed  to  exhibition  fowls  during  cold  weather  to  improve 
the  gloss  on  their  plumage.  Hemp  seed  is  too  expensive 
for  general  use. 


LIGHT  BRAHMA  MALE 


48  POULTRY  FOODS 

Canary  Seed.— The  best  known  balanced  ration  for 
cage  birds  is  canary  seed;  young  chicks  also  enjoy  a 
little  of  this  seed,  on  which  they  will  thrive  when  they 
do  not  do  well  on  other  grains.  All  waste  canary  seed 
should  be  fed  to  chicks,  but  this  feed  is  too  costly  to 
use  except  in  an  emergency  or  to  save  the  waste  from 
cage  birds. 

Rape  Seed. — German  rape  seed,  or  bird-seed  rape,  is 
a  better  food  than  millet  seed  for  young  chicks.  It  is 
a  fattening  food,  rich  in  protein,  and  dark  or  chestnut 
brown  in  color.  Rape-seed  grains  are  smaller  than  millet 
seeds.  For  ailing  or  weakly  chicks,  rape  seed  is  boiled 
for  5  min.,  turned  into  a  fine,  funnel-shapel  sieve,  and 
left  to  drain  overnight.  A  small  quantity  of  this  food 
is  given  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Only  the  true 
German  rape  seed  is  fit  for  this  use. 


VEGETABLES 

Mangels.— Of  all  the  vegetables  and  roots  that  are 
fed  to  poultry  as  substitutes  for  green  foods,  mangels 
are  the  best;  they  are  fine-flavored,  sweet,  and  nutri- 
tious, and  impart  these  qualities  to  the  meat  and  eggs 
of  the  fowls.  No  objectionable  flavors  are  introduced 
into  either  the  flesh  or  the  eggs  as  a  result  of  feeding 
mangels  liberally.  Mangels  are  rank  growers,  keep  well 
throughout  the  winter  if  protected  from  frost,  are  easily 
fed,  and  are  freely  eaten  by  fowls. 

Beets. — There  are  many  kinds  of  beets,  all  of  which 
are  eaten  freely  by  poultry.  If  too  many  raw  beets  are 
fed,  however,  the  bowels  of  the  fowls  may  become  so 
loose  that  diarrhea  will  result,  especially  if  the  use  of 
beets  is  long  continued.  Raw  beets  should  be  sparingly 
fed,  but  if  they  are  cooked  they  make  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  a  ration. 

Turnips.— As  a  poultry  food,  turnips  are  not  so  desir- 
able as  beets.  If  turnips  are  fed  raw,  they  taint  the 
flavor  of  the  eggs  and  do  not  improve  the  meat  of  market 


POULTRY  FOODS  49 

poultry.  The  rutabaga  is  the  best  variety  of  turnip  for 
poultry,  but  even  this  turnip  will  taint  the  eggs  if  fed 
freely.  Turnips,  parsnips,  and  carrots,  when  boiled  to  a 
pulp  and  mixed  with  the  mash  feeds,  make  good  rations 
for  all  kinds  of  poultry.  A  very  little  salt  should  be 
put  in  the  water  in  which  the  vegetables  are  boiled. 
Too  much  salt  will  kill  poultry;  fowls  require  much  less 
salt  than  men. 

Potatoes. — When  they  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  potatoes 
are  used  as  poultry  food;  5  Ib.  of  potatoes  are  about 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  1  Ib.  of  corn  meal.  Potatoes  fed 
to  laying  hens  are  thoroughly  boiled,  drained,  and  mixed 
with  wheat  bran,  middlings,  and  ground  oats;  the  same 
mixture  will  do  for  growing  chicks,  but  if  it  is  to  be 
used  for  fattening  purposes  some  corn  meal  is  added  to 
this  ration.  Meal  that  is  made  from  small  potatoes  is 
used  as  a  fattening  food;  this  meal  contains  all  the 
solid  food  of  the  potato  and  only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  original  moisture.  The  meal  is  an  easly  digested 
food,  and  it  is  used  where  potatoes  are  more  plentiful 
than  grain.  Raw  potatoes  are  not  fit  food  for  poultry. 

Onions.— Although  onions  are  wholesome  food  for  all 
kinds  of  fowls,  their  flavor  is  imparted  to  the  eggs  and 
meat  of  the  fowls  that  eat  them;  for  this  reason  onions 
should  not  be  used  when  their  flavor  will  prove  objec- 
tionable. Turnips,  onions,  and  potatoes  may  be  boiled 
together  and  used  in  mash  food  for  all  kinds  of  poultry 
without  harm,  provided  none  of  the  mixture  is  fed  for 
2  wk.  before  killing  the  fowls  for  market  or  selling  their 
eggs  for  food.  All  of  these  vegetables  can  be  safely 
used  for  hens  when  their  eggs  are  to  be  used  for  hatch- 
ing and  not  for  food. 

Cabbage. — Although  not  the  best  thing  for  them,  cab- 
bage is  a  favorite  food  of  fowls,  and  is  often  quite 
liberally  fed.  Cabbages  are  laxative,  especially  when 
they  have  been  frozen.  They  also  impart  an  odor  to 
eggs  that  detracts  from  their  quality.  If  cabbages  are 
permitted  to  freeze  and  are  carelessly  fed  they  may 
reduce  the  egg  yield  materially,  and  may  also  cause 


50  POULTRY  FOODS 

so  much  looseness  of  the  bowels  of  the  fowls  that  their 
health  will  be  injured.  Kale  and  Swiss  chard  can  be 
used  in  the  same  way  as  cabbages. 

Apples. — No  other  fruit  is  more  plentiful  nor  so  gener- 
ally eaten  as  are  apples.  They  are  liked  by  poultry, 
and  little  chicks  may  be  taught  to  eat  them  raw.  Wher- 
ever sweet  apples  abound  they  can  be  cut  up  into  small 
pieces  and  fed  raw  to  little  chicks.  They  may  be  sliced 
in  root  cutters  and  fed  to  fowls  of  all  ages.  When 
cooked  and  mixed  with  meals  they  are  eaten  greedily 
by  livestock  of  all  kinds.  Apples  and  apple  peelings 
cut  into  small  pieces,  cooked  into  a  thin  sauce,  and 
mixed  with  meals  are  good  feed  for  laying  hens. 

Carrots.— For  feeding  of  poultry,  there  '  is  no  more 
desirable  root  crop  than  carrots.  The  tops  are  relished 
by  the  fowls;  and  they  are  a  succulent  green  feed  for 
them.  The  roots  may  be  fed  raw  to  fowls  of  all  kinds, 
both  young  and  old.  Raw  carrots  fed  freely  to  laying 
hens  are  likely  to  impart  color  to  the  yolk  and  flavor  to 
the  egg.  When  cooked  before  feeding  they  impart  but 
little  color  to  the  yolk  and  no  flavor  to  the  egg.  Carrots 
contain  a  large  percentage  of  water.  The  solids  con- 
tained in  them  are  mostly  digestible.  Boiled  carrots 
mixed  with  meals  are  an  excellent  mash  feed  for  lay- 
ing hens. 

Pumpkins.— For  some  reason  there  is  an  impression 
that  pumpkins  are  not  good  feed  for  cows,  hogs,  or 
poultry.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  for 
such  a  belief.  Although  pumpkins  are  not  an  excellent 
ration  alone  either  for  milk  or  egg  production,  they  can 
be  used  for  feeding  to  poultry  of  all  kinds  and  to  laying 
hens  to  good  advantage.  Pumpkins  that  are  frozen  or 
partly  frozen  are  detrimental  to  the  health  of  poultry  if 
eaten  raw;  if  cooked  and  mixed  with  meal  they  may 
be  safely  eaten  but  they  are  not  so  good  for  feed  as 
when  they  are  in  good  condition.  For  feeding  to  poultry, 
the  pumpkins  should  be  thoroughly  cooked,  stirred  into 
a  mash,  and  dried  off  with  meals,  in  which  condition 
they  can  be  fed  plentifully. 


POULTRY  FOODS  51 


GREEN  FOODS 

Green,  or  growing,  plants  are  valuable  as  food  for 
poultry  on  account  of  the  natural  juices  they  contain. 
The  tender  blades  of  grass  and  other  forage  plants 
impart  new  life  to  fowls  that  feed  on  them  in  the  spring. 
Chicks  can  be  grown  and  fowls  sustained  without  green 
food,  but  the  difference  between  those  that  have  it  in 
abundance  and  those  that  do  not  is  so  marked  that  all 
question  of  its  value  is  removed. 

Green  food  is  at  its  best  when  gathered  by  the  fowls 
from  the  field  where  it  grows,  but  good  results  may  be 
obtained  by  substituting  clover  hay  or  other  dried  forage 
for  the  green  portion  of  the  ration.  This  practice  is 
necessary  when  the  fowls  cannot  range  extensively  and 
whenever  there  is  no  available  green  food  owing  to 
climatic  or  other  conditions. 

The  green  food  consumed  by  fowls  or  chicks  should 
not  to  be  considered  as  a  regular  portion  of  the  nutritive 
ration,  but  rather  as  a  supplement  to  the  grain  and 
animal  food.  The  composition  and  nutritive  ratio  of 
different  kinds  of  green  foods,  that  under  various  cir- 
cumstances and  in  different  places  have  been  found  to  be 
of  more  or  less  value  for  poultry  food,  are  given  in  the 
table  which  appears  on  the  following  page. 

Vegetable  Tops.— Poultry  relish  the  tops  of  vegetables 
as  green  food.  Trimmings  from  vegetables  and  the  waste 
from  fruit,  cabbage,  and  roots,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
boiled  to  a  pulp,  and  mixed  into  a  mash  of  meal,  make 
an  excellent  food  for  all  kinds  of  fowls,  both  old  and 
young. 

Grass.— Nearly  everywhere  grass  of  many  kinds 
grows  naturally  or  is  cultivated  for  feeding,  grazing, 
and  hay  making;  none  of  the  green  foods  is  better  for 
poultry.  Where  grass  is  naturally  abundant,  a  supply 
of  green  food  is  always  at  hand  during  the  growing 
season.  But  green  food  for  winter  use  must  be  grown 


52 


POULTRY  FOODS 


COMPOSITION   AND   NUTRITIVE   RATIO 
OF  GREEN  FOODS 


Food 

Dry 

Matter 
Per 
Cent. 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Protein 
Per 

Cent. 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 
Per 

Cent. 

Fat 
Per 

Cent. 

Alfalfa  .. 

20.0 
20.0 
21.0 
29.2 
19.3 
20.7 
16.4 
34.9 
28.9 
27.0 
37.8 
23.4 
14.3 
34.7 
28.5 
38.4 
27.0 
4.1 
20.0 
15.7 
11.3 
15.3 
11.4 
9.1 
11.7 
21.1 
9.1 
13.0 
19.7 
9.5 
15.9 
12.4 

3.7 
2.1 
1.9 
2.9 
2.2 
1.0 
1.7 
2.7 
1.9 
1.9 
2.4 
2.5 
2.2 
2.6 
2.8 
2.1 
.8 
1.0 
2.0 
1.6 
1.7 
1.8 
.8 
1.1 
1.6 
.9 
1.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.0 
.4 
1.4 

7.3 
8.5 
10.2 
14.8 
9.3 
11.6 
8.8 
17.8 
15.6 
15.9 
17.9 
14.1 
8.6 
21.2 
11.8 
21.2 
13.8 
2.7 
16.8 
11.9 
4.6 
8.2 
7.8 
5.4 
11.2 
16.3 
5.8 
7.5 
24.7 
7.2 
14.2 
9.4 

.6 
.7 
.4 
.7 
.4 
.4 
.3 
.7 
.4 
.6 
.9 
.4 
.3 
.6 
.6 
.6 
.4 
.8 
.2 
.1 
.1 
.4 
.2 
.1 
.2 
.1 
.3 
.2 
.4 
.2 
.3 
.5 

1      2.4 
1      4.8 
1      5.8 
5.7 
4.6 
12.5 
5.6 
7.2 
8.7 
9.1 
8.3 
6.0 
4.2 
8.7 
4.7 
10.8 
18.4 
4.5 
8.7 
7.6 
2.8 
5.1 
10.4 
5.1 
7.3 
18.3 
6.5 
6.7 
17.1 
7.7 
37.3 
7.5 

Alfilerilla  
Barley  

Red  clover  

Crimson  clover  

Cowpeas  

Blue  grass  

Hungarian  grass  .  .  . 
Orchard  grass  
Oats  

Rye  

Red  top  

Soybeans 

Timothy  

Kafir  corn 

Lettuce  

Beets  

Beet  leaves  

Cabbage  

Carrots  

Parsnips  

Potatoes  

Pumpkins        .  . 

Rutabagas  

Sweet  potatoes  
Turnips  

Apples  

POULTRY  FOODS  53 

and  stored,  and  in  some  places  the  supply  for  the  entire 
year  must  be  grown. 

Clippings  of  grass  from  the  lawn  are  also  good  food 
for  poultry  that  is  confined  in  yards;  or,  if  dried  and 
stored,  these  clippings  will  be  good  for  winter  use. 
Either  fresh  or  dry,  they  are  valuable  as  litter  for  the 
floor  of  the  brooder  or  brooder  house. 

Fodder  Corn.— Corn  that  is  sown  broadcast  or  drilled 
in  rows  produces  tender,  green  stalks  called  fodder  corn, 
which  is  relished  by  fowls  that  are  confined;  it 
is  not  preferred  by  fowls  having  their  freedom,  nor 
should  it  be  fed  after  it  has  passed  beyond  a  succulent 
or  juicy  condition. 

Alfalfa  and  Clover.— The  tender  leaves  of  all  the 
clovers  and  of  alfalfa  are  in  much  demand  by  fowls. 
They  probably  prefer  alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  to  clover. 
After  it  has  become  well  established,  alfalfa  will 
continue  to  grow  for  many  years  and  will  produce 
heavier  yields  of  green  forage  and  hay  than  any  of  the 
clovers.  To  raise  alfalfa  successfully,  the  soil  must 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  plant,  and  in  many 
localities  clover  can  be  raised  more  easily  than  alfalfa. 

During  winter  months,  clover  hay  can  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  green  food.  Hay  made  from  Red  clover 
is  most  frequently  used  for  this  purpose,  although  hay 
made  from  any  of  the  clover  plants  is  good  winter  food 
for  fowls.  It  may  be  used  as  litter  on  the  floor,  from 
which  the  fowls  will  help  themselves,  or  the  hay  may  be 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed  in  a  box  for  the  fowls 
to  work  over.  They  eat  all  the  leaves  of  clover  hay. 
Bright,  clean,  early-cut  hay  is  preferable  to  a  dark 
hay  made  from  cured  plants.  Ground  clover  and  clover 
meal  may  also  be  used  as  food  for  poultry. 

Hay  made  from  alfalfa  is  extensively  used  for 
poultry,  and  it  may,  like  clover,  be  cut  into  pieces  or 
ground  into  a  fine  meal  before  feeding.  All  forms 
of  alfalfa  are  freely  eaten  both  by  old  and  young 
fowls,  and  alfalfa  is  not  equaled  by  any  other  hay  as 
a  substitute  for  green  food  for  fowls.  Meadow  hay  may 


54  POULTRY  FOODS 

be   ground   and  mixed  with   alfalfa   meal,  but  alfalfa  is 
best  fed  without  mixture  or  adulteration. 

Miscellaneous  Green  Crops  for  Winter  Feeding.— In 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  many  other  green 
crops  are  grown  for  winter  feeding.  A  mixture  of  oats, 
peas,  rape,  and  clover  planted  on  the  same  ground  and 
cut  while  green  makes  a  good  forage  crop  for  fowls. 
First,  sow  3  bu.  oats  and  2  bu.  peas  per  acre  and  harrow 
into  the  ground;  then,  seed  over  the  oats  and  peas 
with  a  mixture  of  6  qt.  clover  seed  and  1  qt.  German 
rape  seed. 

ANIMAL  FOODS 

MEAT  AND  MEAT  PRODUCTS 

Marked  success  in  producing  eggs  and  in  growing 
poultry  for  the  market  cannot  be  obtained  without  the 
use  of  some  animal  food. 

Insects  and  worms  form  an  important  part  of  the 
food  of  wild  birds  and  of  domestic  fowls  whenever  they 
are  permitted  to  range. 

Lean  Meat.— Meat  is  an  acceptable  substitute  for 
insects  and  worms.  Lean  meat  is  especially  useful 
in  the  feeding  of  laying  hens,  for  by  using  this  food 
much  protein  may  be  added  to  the  ration  without  in- 
creasing its  bulk  or  using  concentrated  foods  that 
impair  digestion.  The  carcasses  of  horses  and  cows 
are  composed  mainly  of  lean  meat  and  are  used  as 
poultry  food. 

Meat  Scrap.— There  are  two  kinds  of  meat  scrap, 
fat  and  lean.  The  latter  kind  contains  twice  as  much 
protein  as  carbohydrates,  while  the  former  contains  more 
fat  than  protein  and  very  little  ash.  The  best  lean- 
meat  scrap  should  be  selected  for  laying  hens;  the  more 
protein  and  the  less  fat  the  scrap  contains,  the  better 
it  is  for  the  hens.  Fat-meat  scraps  and  fat  or  tallow 
are  used  in  fattening  special  grades  of  table  poultry. 

Animal  Meal. — One  of  the  numerous  by-products  of  the 
slaughter  houses  is  animal  meal.  The  feeding  value 


POULTRY  FOODS  55 

of  animal  meal  is  higher  than  that  of  cut  green  bone;  but 
better  results  are  obtained  from  the  use  of  cut  green 
bone  than  from  animal  meal,  because  the  former  contains 
a  larger  percentage  of  ash  than  of  protein — presum- 
ably because  the  meal  is  made  from  both  bone  and  meat. 
Good  meat  meal  is  rich  in  protein  but  contains  less  ash 
than  animal  meal,  and  can  only  be  used  sparingly  in 
making  an  egg-producing  ration.  Because  of  its  cost 
and  richness  in  protein,  meat  meal  is  used  only  when 
good  meat  scrap  cannot  be  obtained. 

Dried  Blood.— Dried  blood  and  blood  meal  are  some- 
times used  to  supply  protein  in  foods  for  poultry. 
These  blood  products  are  concentrated  foods  and  a 
small  quantity  of  either  mixed  with  other  foods  will 
make  a  narrow  ration.  Dried  blood  and  blood  meal 
are  not  generally  economical  or  profitable  foods  for 
poultry. 

Cut  Green  Bone.— The  food  commonly  called  cut 
green  bone  is  made  by  cutting  fresh  bones  into  small 
pieces  by  means  of  a  bone  mill.  Being  fresh  meat, 
bone,  and  fat,  its  composition  closely  resembles  that  of 
bugs  and  worms,  the  natural  food  of  fowls.  About 
Y^  oz.  of  cut  green  bone  per  day  for  each  fowl,  mixed 
with  wheat  bran,  will  make  a  balanced  ration  well  suited 
to  fowls. 

Tainted  Meat.— Tainted  meat  that  is  not  fit  for  human 
food  should  not  be  fed  to  fowls.  The  taint  of  such  food 
may  sometimes  be  removed  by  boiling  it  in  water 
containing  baking  soda,  in  which  case  the  meat  can  be 
safely  fed  to  fowls. 

Bone  Meal.— Bone  meal  consists  of  bones  of  animals 
cleaned  of  all  meat,  fat,  and  marrow,  and  reduced  to 
meal.  It  is  used  to  supply  any  deficiency  of  lime,  ash, 
or  bone-forming  material  that  exists  in  the  ration.  Bone 
meal  can  be  fed  to  young  chicks  to  produce  a  strong 
growth  of  bone.  The  particles  in  this  meal  vary  in 
size  from  those  that  are  very  small  to  those  of  the  size 
of  whole  wheat  or  even  corn;  the  largest  sizes  are  not 
desirable  for  poultry  food. 


56  POULTRY  FOODS 

Fish. — Fish  that  are  handled  for  their  oil  are  reduced 
in  presses  until  little  of  their  flesh  remains.  The  bone 
and  other  residue  are  then  ground  into  a  meal.  This 
fish  meal  and  dried  fish  are  sometimes  fed  to  poultry. 
Fish  products  are  liable  to  transmit  a  disagreeable 
flavor  to  the  eggs  or  meat,  and  for  this  reason  are  not 
desirable. 

MILK 

Milk  is  a  valuable  poultry  food,  more  valuable  than 
its  commercial  analysis  indicates.  Nothing  excels 
warm  rnilk  direct  from  the  cow  as  the  first  ration  for 
chicks.  The  use  of  whole  milk  as  a  chicken  feed, 
however,  will  rarely  prove  profitable,  for  even  when 
carefully  handled  it  is  not  worth  more  than  2c.  per  qt. 
for  thir.  purpose.  The  most  profitable  method  of  feeding 
milk  to  fowls  is  to  use  it  in  moistening  mash  feeds. 

Some  persons  prefer  sweet  milk  for  poultry,  but 
G.  A.  C.  Wyllie,  of  the  British  Dairy  Institute,  Reading, 
England,  says  that  sour  milk  has  been  found  to  give 
better  results,  as  the  acid  produced  by  the  bacteria 
present  causes  more  rapid  action.  He  states:  "Soured 
milk  also  prevents  scouring,  and  makes  the  food  easier 
digested.  The  acid  formed  from  the  milk  sugar  also 
prevents  sickness  and  stimulates  the  appetite.  It  keeps 
the  digestive  organs  in  proper  activity,  which  saves 
feeding  co  much  green  food.  When  fed  to  all  kinds 
of  poultry  it  produces  a  fine  white  flesh,  due  to  the 
amount  of  phosphates,  with  extra  good  flavor.  It  is  with- 
out doubt  one  of  the  best  foods  we  have  both  for  young 
and  old  stock,  and  is  becoming  more  popular  every 
day.  I  may  say  it  also  increases  the  egg  supply  and 
hastens  ihe  molt." 

Skim- milk,  sour  milk,  and  buttermilk,  may  be  im- 
proved for  feeding  purposes  by  scalding;  but  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  boil,  as  boiling  destroys  the  value 
and  palatability.  The  whey  of  milk  is  of  no  value 
as  a  poultry  feed.  In  the  accompanying  table  is  shown 
the  composition  and  nutritive  ratio  of  whole  milk  and 
of  various  milk  products. 


POULTRY  FOODS 


57 


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MINERAL  MATTER 

Grit.— The  food  eaten  by 
fowls  goes  first  into  the 
crop,  where  it  is  softened 
by  water;  it  then  passes 
into  the  gizzard,  and  by 
the  action  of  small  sharp 
stones,  or  grit,  is  there 
ground  into  a  pasty  mass. 
The  best  grit  is  sharp,  ir- 
regular pieces  of  hard 
limestone  about  the  size 
of  corn  kernels. 

Mineral  matter  is  neces- 
sary for  the  good  health 
of  the  fowls  and  for  egg- 
shell-forming material.  A 
deficiency  of  this  in  the 
regular  ration  may  be  sup- 
plied by  grit,  limestone, 
plaster,  broken  oyster 
shells,  or  shells  of  any 
kind.  Granulated  bone 
and  bone  meal  serve  the 
purpose  fairly  well,  but 
the  lime  in  shells  is  more 
quickly  dissolved  by  the 
action  of  grit  and  gizzard, 
and  hence  is  better  than 
the  bone. 

Charcoal.  —  Charcoal  is 
one  of  the  necessities  of 
poultry  feeding  and  should 
be  kept  constantly  before 
poultry;  it  assists  diges- 
tion, sweetens  the  crop, 
gizzard,  and  intestines,  and 
prevents  ailments  of  the 


58  POULTRY  FOODS 

digestive  tract.  The  charcoal,  which  should  be  broken 
into  small  pieces,  should  be  supplied  with  the  oyster 
shells  and  grit. 

Salt. — The  use  of  salt  in  poultry  food  is  not  a 
necessity;  but  when  a  forcing  ration  is  fed  to  fowls 
either  to  produce  broilers,  to  fatten  fowls,  or  to  produce 
eggs,  some  salt  may  be  used  to  assist  digestion;  8  oz 
of  salt  to  100  Ib.  of  meal  is  enough  to  use;  much  more 
than  this  will  injure  the  digestion  of  grown  fowls, 
and  it  is  positively  unsafe  to  feed  more  to  young  chicks. 


POISONOUS  FOODS 

Fowls  sometimes  die  from  ptomaine  poisoning.  For 
this  reason  putrid  meat,  spoiled  grain,  and  other  fer- 
mented or  spoiled  foods  should  not  be  fed.  Foods  that 
are  otherwise  wholesome  may  be  made  unwholesome  if 
exposed  to  dampness,  due  to  the  development  of  molds. 

Excessive  quantities  of  salt,  salt  meat,  or  the  brine 
from  which  the  meat  has  been  removed,  salt  fish,  salt 
from  ice-cream  freezers,  and  in  fact,  salt  of  any  kind 
consumed  in  large  quantities  is  very  destructive  to 
poultry. 

Solutions  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  of  sulphuric  acid, 
carelessly  used,  are  very  destructive  to  poultry. 

Decayed  vegetables  or  fruits,  fermenting  waste,  waste 
from  cider  mills"  or  canning  factories,  and  slops  from 
distilleries  are  not  suitable  for  feeding  to  laying  hens, 
because  they  flavor  the  eggs.  Tainted  meat  eaten  by 
a  fowl  will  also  influence  the  flavor  of  eggs. 

Moldy  bread  is  detrimental  to  poultry.  It  may  be 
freed  from  mold  by  toasting  or  baking  it  dry  and  hard, 
but  when  so  prepared  it  is  not  fit  food  for  chicks  under 
6  wk.  old. 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 

The  process  of  digestion  in  poultry  differs  materially 
from  that  in  animals  that  chew  their  food.  Fowls  have 
no  teeth,  the  functions  of  the  teeth  being  performed 
by  the  gizzard,  in  which,  by  the  aid  of  grit,  the  food  is 


FIG.  1 

ground  into  pulp.  The  greater  part  of  the  food  eaten 
by  poultry  is  swallowed  whole  and  passes  in  that 
condition  to  the  crop,  where  it  absorbs  considerable 
moisture  before  it  passes  to  the  other  digestive  organs. 
A  general  view  of  the  internal  organs  of  a  hen  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  After  being  picked  up  by  the  bill,  the 


60  INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 

food  passes  through  the  upper  part  of  the  esophagus 
a  into  the  crop  b;  from  the  crop  the  food  passes  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  esophagus  into  the  gizzard  c; 
and  from  there  through  the  other  organs  of  the  digestive 
system.  • 

Crop.— In  fowls  and  other  granivorous,  or  grain-eating, 
birds,  the  crop  is  relatively  larger  than  the  crop  of 
birds  that  feed  largely  on  grass.  Within  the  crops  are 
juices  that  moisten  the  food  and  hasten  its  passage  into 
the  gizzard. 

Gizzard.— The  gizzard  c  may  be  looked  on  as  a  power- 
ful grinding  machine  in  which  the  whole  grain  and 
other  foods  of  poultry  are  ground,  oftentimes  finer 
than  they  would  be  ground  by  the  teeth  of  chewing 
animals.  The  grinding  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  powerful  muscles  of  the  gizzard,  which  keep  the 
mixture  of  sand,  grit,  and  food  within  it  constantly  in 
motion.  In  the  gizzard  the  food  is  also  acted  on  by 
digestive  juices  before  being  passed  into  the  intestines. 

Intestines.— The  intestines  as  applied  to  fowls  means 
all  of  the  alimentary  canal  beyond  the  gizzard.  The 
intestines  of  the  fowls,  although  different  in  many 
respects  from  those  of  other  animals,  present  a  somewhat 
similar  appearance  and  have  functions  nearly  identical 
with  those  of  the  other  domestic  animals.  In  fowls,  the 
intestines  are  made  up  of  the  duodenum,  and  the  rest 
of  the  small  intestines  d,  the  caeca  e,  and  the  large 
intestines  and  the  rectum  g.  Inside  of  the  intestines  the 
food  is  acted  on  by  various  digestive  fluids,  and 
digestible  nutrients  within  the  food  are  taken  from  it 
and  eventually  converted  into  blood.  The  inner  walls 
of  the  intestines  are  covered  with  minute  projections 
known  as  rilH,  which  absorb  the  digested  material 
trom  the  contents  of  the  intestines.  The  indigestible 
part  of  the  food  passes  into  the  rectum  g  and  out  of 
the  body  through  the  vent  h. 

Liver.— The  liver  i  is  a  large,  two-lobed  organ  of 
peculiar  cellular  structure.  It  has  two  offices,  one  of 
them  being  to  purify  the  digested  material  brought  to 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS  61 

it  by  the  capillaries,  and  the  other  to  secrete  the  bile, 
an  important  digestive  fluid.  The  liver  must  be  kept 
in  a  healthy  condition  or  the  blood,  and  consequently 
the  entire  system,  will  speedily  become  poisoned. 

Gall  Bladder.— The  gall  bladder  k  serves  as  a  reservoir 
for  the  bile  secreted  by  the  liver,  to  which  it  is  closely 
attached.  The  bile  is  passed,  as  needed,  from  the  gall 
bladder  to  the  intestines,  where  its  special  office  is 
to  break  up  the  vegetable  fats  and  oils  and  convert  them 
into  soluble  animal  fat,  which  is  readily  made  a  part  of 
the  fowl's  body. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  s  is  located  near  the  liver  and  is 
an  organ  whose  use  is  not  definitely  known.  It  is 
thought,  however,  that  it  is  useful  in  producing  certain 
modifications  in  the  blood. 

Pancreas.— Situated  among  the  folds  of  the  small 
intestines  is  the  pancreas  /,  a  small  organ  of  insig- 
nificant appearance.  This  organ  is  of  vital  importance, 
for  in  it  is  secreted  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  flows 
from  the  pancreas  into  the  intestines,  where  it  acts 
directly  on  the  starchy  portions  of  food,  and  to  a 
limited  extent  on  protein;  it  also  aids  in  the  absorption 
of  fat.  The  juice  from  the  pancreas  unites  with  the  bile 
and  they  together  flow  over  the  foods  as  they  come  from 
the  gizzard. 

Heart  and  Lungs.— The  heart  m  and  the  lungs  n  are 
vital  organs.  The  work  done  by  the  latter,  like  that 
of  the  liver,  consists  in  purifying  the  blood.  The  office 
of  the  heart,  as  is  well  known,  is  to  pump  the  blood 
to  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  heart,  lungs,  and  liver  may 
be  considered  as  the  most  important  organs  of  the  body, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  in  good  working 
order,  for  when  the  action  of  one  of  these  organs  is 
faulty,  the  effect  is  soon  apparent  on  the  others.  The  air 
is  supplied  to  the  lungs  through  the  windpipe  w. 

Kidneys.— The  kidneys  o  are  located  in  cavities  in 
the  pelvic  bone.  They  act  on  the  blood  and  separate 
from  it  liquid  waste  material,  which  is  eventually  passed 
from  the  body  through  the  vent. 


62 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 


a 


Ovaries  and  Oviduct.— The  ovaries  p  and  the  oviduct  q 
are  shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  2.  The  ovaries  a  (Fig.  2) 
are  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  backbone,  usually 
on  the  left.  The  ovaries 
and  the  oviduct  are  the 
female  organs  of  repro- 
duction. The  yolk  of  the 
egg  attains  its  full  size 
within  the  casing  of  the 
ovaries,  which,  in  good 
laying  hens,  contain 
yolks  varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a  small  pin 
head  to  that  of  the  full- 
grown  yolk.  As  soon  as 
the  yolk  has  reached  its 
-full  development,  the 
casing  of  the  ovary,  or 
ovisac,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  opens  and  the 
yolk  passes  into  the  ovi- 
duct c.  The  yolk  may  or 
L  may  not  be  fertilized  by 
'  the  male  element  before 
or  just  after  entering  the 
oviduct. 

The  oviduct  varies  in 
length,  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  nearly  2  ft.  long.  As 
the  yolk  passes  through 
the  oviduct  it  becomes 
covered  with  albumen,  of 
which  the  white  of  the 
egg  is  composed,  and 
with  a  double  membrane, 
or  the  lining  to  the  egg- 
shell. After  the  egg  has  reached  its  full  size  the  shell  is 
formed  about  it  in  the  oviduct.  The  passage  of  the  egg 
through  the  oviduct  requires  from  6  to  18  or  20  hr. 


FIG.  2 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  63 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

In  poultry  feeding  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  provide 
fowls  with  a  ration  properly  balanced  in  the  food 
elements,  but  the  ration  must  also  be  of  a  character 
most  suitable  to  the  digestive  organs  of  the  fowls. 
In  addition  to  this  the  fowls  must  be  forced  to  take 
sufficient  exercise  so  that  their  bodily  functions  will 
demand  a  plentiful  supply  of  food,  be  in  a  condition 
to  secure  the  best  results  from  the  food  that  is  eaten, 
and  be  able  to  eliminate  readily  all  waste  materials. 

When  fowls  take  sufficient  exercise,  the  only  secret  of 
keeping  their  digestive  organs  in  the  best  condition  will 
be  found  in  feeding  them  a  plentiful  supply  of  coarse 
feed  like  bran,  or  some  of  the  succulent  green  foods, 
such  as  cut  clover,  cut  grasses,  vegetables,  or  fruits. 
These  foods  will  distend  the  intestines  and  aid  in  dis- 
tributing the  concentrated  foods  that  are  necessary 
for  upbuilding  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  for  egg 
production.  To  induce  fowls  to  take  considerable 
exercise,  a  certain  part  of  their  grain  food  should  be 
scattered  in  the  litter  of  the  houses  and  on  the  ground 
of  the  ranges  so  that  they  will  be  compelled  to  scratch 
to  get  it. 

When  kept  actively  exercising,  fowls  will  not  eat  more 
than  their  digestive  organs  will  be  able  to  handle 
easily,  provided  fattening  foods  are  not  fed  in  excess 
and  the  ration  is  well  balanced  for  egg  production. 

Despite  the  necessity  of  a  certain  quantity  of  coarse 
food  to  regulate  their  digestive  organs,  fowls  must  be 
fed  as  little  indigestible  matter  as  is  consistent  with  the 
maintenance  of  their  health  and  of  a  well-balanced 
ration.  For  instance,  hens  cannot  thrive  on  a  ration 
made  up  entirely  of  even  the  best  grade  of  oats,  and 
when  oats  are  fed  that  are  three-fourths  husks,  all  the 
hens  can  possibly  stuff  themselves  with  will  do  little 
more  than  barely  sustain  life  and  will  produce  but 
few  eggs.  Chick  feed  and  feed  for  full-grown  fowls 


64 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


that  is  largely  indigestible  will  "seriously  injure  those 
that  eat  it.  It  is  possible  for  chicks  and  full-grown 
fowls  to  dwindle  away  with  their  crops  stuffed  full  of 
indigestible  material.  The  fact  that  a  fowl's  crop  is 
distended  with  food  is  no  proof  that  it  has  been  well 
fed.  Hence,  the  only  actual  proof  of  the  value  of  any 
particular  feed  for  fowls  lies 
in  the  results  that  are  ob- 
tained from  it. 

As  a  part  of  the  daily  ra- 
tion, water  is  equal  in  im- 
portance to  grain.  Without 
water,  the  food  would  not  be 
softened  in  the  crop  and  di- 
gestion would  not  go  on. 
Blood,  eggs,  and  meat  are  all 
largely  water;  even  the  bones 
and  muscles  are  dependent  on 
moisture  for  growth.  Pure 
ROCK  water  is  an  absolute  necessity 
for  poultry;  if  the  drinking 
water  is  tainted,  putrid,  or 

contaminated  with  germs,  disease  is  sure  to  follow  its 
use.  A  gallon  of  fresh  water  each  day  is  not  too  much 
for  2  doz.  hens.  A  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water  from 
which  they  can  help  themselves  must  be  constantly  kept 
within  reach  of  fowls. 

The  composition   of  fowls   and   fresh   eggs   is   shown   in 
the  accompanying  table.     The  large  percentage  of  water 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOWL  AND  EGG 


BARRED    PLYMOUTH 
FEMALE 


Water 
Per 
Cent. 

Ash 

Per 

Cent. 

Protein 
Per 
Cent. 

Fat 
Per 

Cent. 

Hen... 

55.8 

3.8 

21.6 

17.0 

Pullet           

55.4 

3.4 

21.2 

18.0 

Capon  

41.6 

3.7 

19.4 

33.9 

Fresh  egg  

65.7 

12  2 

11.4 

8.9 

FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


65 


in  them  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  a  plentiful  supply 
of  water. 

WEIGHT  OF  POULTRY  FOODS  PER  QUART 


Food 


Alfalfa  meal 

Barley,  whole 

Barley  meal 

Beans 

Beef 

Buckwheat 

Corn,  whole 

Corn  meal 

Corn  bran 

Corn  and  oat  food 

Cottonseed  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hemp  seed 

Hominy  chop 

Kafir  corn 

Linseed  meal,  new  process. . . 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Millet -. 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground 

Peas 

Rice 

Rye,  whole 

Rye,  ground 

Sunflower  seed 

Salt 

Shorts 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) . 
Wheat,  middlings  ( ilour) 


Weight  of  Poultry  Foods  per  Quart.— In  the  mixing 
of  rations  for  poultry  the  weights  of  poultry  foods  per 
quart  as  given  in  the  preceding  table  are  useful. 


66  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

FEEDING  OF  YOUNG   CHICKS 

Xo  food  is  given  to  young  chicks  for  the  first  48  hr., 
but  grit  of  some  kind  is  supplied  to  clean  out  their 
digestive  organs.  Beginning  with  the  third  day,  they 
may  have  stale  bread  moistened  with  sweet  milk  and 
pressed  until  nearly  dry.  For  the  next  2  or  3  da.  a  mix- 
ture of  stale  bread  crumbs  and  fine  oatmeal  makes  a 
good  ration,  and  is  better  fed  in  small  quantities  at 
frequent  intervals. 

For  chicks  that  are  a  week  or  more  old,  a  simple 
ration  can  be  made  of  4  parts,  by  weight,  of  cracked 
corn,  2  parts  of  broken  wheat,  2  parts  of  oatmeal,  and 
2  parts  of  granulated  meat  scrap.  The  corn  should  be 
broken  into  small  pieces  and  the  meat  scrap  must  be 
of  good  quality,  rich  in  protein,  and  of  small  size;  meat 
s:rap  that  contains  fat  is  not  fit  to  use  in  this  ration. 
After  the  chicks  are  6  wk.  old,  a  ration  made  of  cracked 
corn,  whole  wheat,  hulled  oats,  and  meat  scrap  can  be 
used.  In  addition  to  the  grain  and  meat  ration,  grit, 
green  food,  broken  sea  shells,  or  bone  meal  are  neces- 
sary for  young  chicks.  All  food  fed  to  chicks  should 
l)e  in  small  particles  to  avoid  disorders  in  the  crop  and 
digestive  organs. 

Green  stuff  of  some  kind  should  be  fed  continually 
after  the  chicks  are  3  or  4  da.  old.  Sprouted  oats,  lawn 
clippings,  vegetable  tops  of  any  kind,  and  lettuce  may 
all  be  fed.  It  is  best  to  cut  them  into  very  small  pieces 
before  feeding.  There  is  no  danger  of  poultry  of  any 
age  having  too  much  green  feed.  Partly-grown  chicks 
and  older  fowls  will  get  a  plentiful  supply  of  this  if 
given  free  range  where  it  is  abundant.  When  kept  in 
confinement,  they  should  have  a  plentiful  supply  of 
green  stuff  fresh  every  day. 

One  of  the  most  successful  poultry  growers  and  exhibi- 
tors of  New  England  feeds  his  little  chicks  for  the  first 
day  or  two  on  a  baked  cake  made  of  2  parts  of  bran, 
2  parts  of  corn  meal,  and  1  part  of  wheat  middlings,  with 
just  enough  sweet  milk  or  water  to  make  a  dry,  crumbly 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  67 

mass.  This  is  baked  in  the  oven  until  thoroughly  done. 
When  cool,  this  cake  is  rubbed  into  crumbs  and  fed  to 
the  chicks,  a  little  fine  grit  being  sprinkled  on  the 
board  where  the  cake  is  spread.  This  is  fed  to  the 
chicks  every  2  hr. ;  they  should  have  only  as  much  as 
they  will  eat  up  clean.  After  the  second  day,  hoppers 
containing  a  dry  mash  composed  of  2  parts  of  wheat  bran 
and  1  part  of  corn  meal  should  be  placed  where  the  chicks 
can  help  themselves.  A  hopper  filled  with  charcoal,  grit, 
and  very  fine  oyster  shell  is  also  used. 

After  the  first  week  the  same  feeding  is  continued, 
with  the  addition  of  some  grain,  chick  feed  being  scat- 
tered in  the  litter  for  the  chicks  to  scratch  for.  After 
the  second  week  but  one  feed  a  day  of  the  baked  cake 
is  given  to  them,  the  remainder  of  the  ration  being 
composed  of  the  grain  chick  feed.  After  the  second  week 
some  hard-boiled  egg  chopped  up  very  fine  and  mixed 
with  the  cake  is  given  to  the  chicks.  This  is  fed  once 
a  day  for  2  or  3  wk. 

After  the  third  week  the  chicks  are  fed  very  small 
size  cracked  corn  in  place  of  the  chick  feed,  and  the 
baked  cake  is  omitted,  the  hoppers  of  dry  mash  being 
kept  before  them  all  the  time.  In  addition  to  this  they 
should  have  sprouted  oats  fresh  each  morning.  Sprouted 
oats  is  considered  of  equal  importance  with  the  other 
feeds. 

Until  they  are  well  grown  the  chicks  are  fed  con- 
tinually with  some  broken  grain  composed  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  hulled  oats,  which  is  scattered  in  the  litter 
to  furnish  plenty  of  exercise.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  can 
run  out  of  doors  there  is  less  need  of  feeding  the 
sprouted  oats,  provided  they  can  get  growing  greens  on 
the  outside. 

CORNELL  FEEDING  SCHEDULE 

The  Poultry  Department  of  Cornell  Agricultural 
College  recommends  that  chicks  be  fed  from  the  first  to 
the  fourth  day  with  rolled  oats,  8  parts;  bread  crumbs, 
8  parts;  sifted  beef  scrap,  2  parts;  bone  meal,  1  part. 


68  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

This  is  moistened  with  sour  skim-milk,  and  fed  five 
times  daily.  Cracked  grain  mixture  should  be  left  before 
the  chicks  in  a  shallow  tray  containing  a  little  dry  mash 
like  that  given  in  later  feeding.  This  grain  mixture  is 
composed  of  finely  cracked  wheat,  3  parts;  finely  cracked 
corn,  2  parts;  pinhead  oatmeal  (steel-cut  oatmeal),  1  part. 
Fine  grit  and  charcoal  mixed  with  grain,  and  a  little 
finely  shredded  green  food,  should  be  scattered  in  the 
trays.  Plenty  of  clean  water  should  be  supplied  at  all 
times. 

For  subsequent  feeding,  the  following  mash  moistened 
with  skim-milk  should  be  gradually  substituted  for  the 
first  mixture:  Wheat  bran,  3  parts;  corn  meal,  3  parts; 
wheat  middlings,  3  parts;  sifted  beef  scrap,  3  parts; 
bone  meal,  1  part.  The  moist  mash  should  be  fed  two 
or  three  times  daily.  Cracked  grain  should  be  given  at 
least  twice  daily,  scattered  in  light  litter  as  soon  as  the 
chicks  are  able  to  find  it.  Mash  in  dry  condition  should 
be  kept  in  shallow  trays  before  the  chicks.  Grit,  char- 
coal, and  fine  cracked  bone  shou!4  be  fed  in  separate 
trays  or  hoppers.  When  4  wk.  old,  the  chicks  should 
be  receiving  two  meals  of  mash  and  three  of  grain. 

After  4  wk.  the  number  of  meals  should  be  reduced, 
first  to  two  of  mash  and  two  of  grain,  then  to  one  of 
mash  and  two  of  grain;  the  grain  should  be  fed  morning 
and  night  and  the  dry  mash  should  be  constantly  acces- 
sible. As  soon  as  the  chicks  will  eat  larger  grains,  the 
wheat  need  not  be  cracked;  hulled  oats  may  be  used  in 
place  of  pinhead  oatmeal,  and  the  corn  may  be  coarsely 
cracked.  When  the  chicks  are  8  wk.  old,  the  grain 
ration  may  be  changed  to  the  following:  Large  cracked 
corn,  3  parts;  wheat,  2  parts.  If  it  is  desired  that  the 
chicks  shall  develop  slowly,  the  moist  food  may  be 
gradually  discontinued  after  3  wk.  Beef  scrap  may 
be  fed  in  the  mash  up  to  one-fourth  by  weight,  in  quan- 
tity, or,  after  the  chicks  have  become  accustomed  to  it, 
may  be  kept  constantly  before  them  in  hoppers.  This 
method  of  feeding  has  been  proved  to  be  good  where  all 
feeds  are  to  be  purchased.  Farmers  having  certain  prod- 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  69 

ucts  of  their  own  may  modify  it  to  advantage.  Soured 
skim-milk  and  table  scraps  will  largely  replace  beef 
scrap,  particularly  if  chicks  are  on  free  range.  Bread 
moistened  with  milk  is  a  good  food  for  the  first  day  or 
two.  Scalded  clover  leaves,  either  alone  or  mixed  with 
other  feeds  form  a  valuable  addition  to  the  rations,  and 
chicks  a  week  old  will  eat  wheat  screenings.  Buck- 
wheat, barley,  or  rye  should  not  be  fed  to  young  chicks. 


FEEDING  OF  LAYING  HENS 

There  has  been  so  much  written  relative  to  feeding 
laying  hens  that  one  is  at  a  loss  to  know  just  where 
to  begin  and  what  method  to  adopt.  However,  it  may 
be  said  that  a  ration  for  laying  hens  is  not  suitable 
unless  it  contains  enough  of  the  food  principles  to  main- 
tain the  bodily  growth  and  to  supply  sufficient  material 
for  the  production  of  eggs;  that  is,  protein,  fats,  carbo- 
hydrates, ash,  and  water  must  be  plentifully  supplied 
and  in  the  proper  proportions. 

A  few  suggestions  that  might  be  followed  as  a  guide 
for  selecting  a  ration  to  be  fed  to  hens  are  given  here. 
Never  feed  a  ration  containing  any  considerable  amount 
of  fattening  feed  during  the  summer  months,  nor  in  a 
climate  that  is  continually  warm.  An  all-corn  ration 
will  not  produce  many  eggs  in  winter,  neither  will  a 
ration  composed  entirely  of  wheat  and  oats  do  much 
better.  It  is  not  necessary  nor  advisable  to  feed  many 
different  kinds  of  grain,  and,  above  all,  a  grain  mixture 
should  not  be  fed  unless  its  grain  content  is  such  as  will 
produce  eggs. 

The  most  rapid  assimilation  and  transformation  of 
feed  into  table  products  is  accomplished  by  the  hen  and 
the  cow;  the  former  is  most  active  and  when  in  good 
producing  condition  transforms  the  food  consumed  into 
eggs  even  more  quickly  than  the  cow  transforms  her 
food  into  milk.  Doctor  Jordan,  of  the  New  York  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  says:  "If  you  will  con- 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

sider  the  dry  matter  of  the  hen  and  compare  it  with  the 
dry  matter  of  the  eggs  she  lays  in  a  year,  there  will  be 
figured  5l/2  times  as  much  dry  matter  in  the  eggs  as  in 
her  whole  body.  The  weight  of  the  dry  matter  in  a 
cow's  body  will  be  to  the  weight  of  the  dry  matter  in 
the  milk  as  1  is  to  2.9.  In  other  words,  based  on  the 
dry  matter,  the  hen  does  twice  as  well  as  the  cow." 
This  indicates  more  activity  and  a  greater  amount  of 
assimilating  power  by  the  hen  than  by  the  cow. 

The  hen  that  lays  150  eggs  per  year  will,  if  these  eggs 
weigh  2  oz.  each,  have  laid  300  oz.  of  eggs.  Of  this, 
approximately  10%  is  protein;  that  is,  30  oz.  of  protein 
is  extracted  from  her  feed.  The  hen  will  need  more 
than  three  times  as  much  protein  as  her  egg  yield  con- 
tains to  sustain  her  body  during  the  year,  which  would 
be  in  all  120  oz.  of  protein,  or  7*/2  lb.  If  the  entire  grain 
ration  of  the  hen  were  composed  of  wheat,  and  if  she 
should  eat  100  lb.,  which  is  the  average  ration  for  a  year, 
there  would  be  only  a  little  more  than  9  lb.  of  digestible 
protein  in  her  year's  supply.  If  the  hen  should  extract 
7  lb.  of  protein  from  the  9  Jb.  of  protein  contents  in  the 
wheat,  she  would  be  doing  remarkably  well.  To  accom- 
plish this  she  would  need  to  gain  70%  efficiency  from  the 
food  consumed. 

Professor  Patterson,  of  Missouri,  has  advanced  the 
theory  that  the  best  egg  yield  will  be  secured  from  hens 
that  are  fed  a  ration  that  contains  about  equal  propor- 
tions of  yolk-forming  material  and  white-forming  mate- 
rial. He  believes  that  if  the  hens  are  fed  in  this  way 
they  will  produce  more  eggs  than  if  fed  otherwise. 
These  suggestions  might  be  called  experimental.  The 
only  way  of  knowing  to  a  certainty  whether  or  not  this 
is  true  will  be  through  practical  experience  or  from 
giving  the  suggestion  a  fair  trial  and  noting  the  results. 
The  grain  ration  suggested  is  a  mixture  of  150  lb.  of 
cracked  corn  and  150  lb.  of  wheat.  For  a  dry  mash,  20  lb. 
each  of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  corn  meal,  ground 
oats,  and  gluten  meal,  with  30  lb.  of  beef  scrap,  5  lb.  of 
alfalfa  meal,  and  5  lb.  of  linseed  meal,  is  recommended. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  71 

For  a  ration  for  laying  hens  that  have  free  range, 
Professor  Patterson  suggests  150  Ib.  of  cracked  corn,  150 
Ib.  of  wheat,  and  25  Ib.  of  beef  scrap.  The  beef  scrap, 
of  course,  would  need  to  be  fed  from  the  hopper. 

Another  suggestion  for  feeding  laying  hens  that  have 
free  range  is  a  mixture  of  100  Ib.  of  wheat,  100  Ib.  of 
corn,  and  50  Ib.  of  oats  or  buckwheat.  A  dry  mash  to 
be  used  with  this  is  composed  of  20  Ib.  of  bran,  10  Ib.  of 
corn  meal,  10  Ib.  of  wheat  middlings,  10  Ib.  of  beef  scrap, 
and  10  Ib.  of  gluten  meal.  The  difference  between  these 
two  rations  is  that  the  grain  ration  contains  50  Ib.  of 
buckwheat  and  the  beef  scrap  is  fed  in  the  mash.  This 
ration  may  be  obtained  in  almost  every  locality,  and 
the  hens  that  are  fed  with  it  may  do  fairly  well  at  egg 
production. 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  FEEDING 

The  most  modern  method  of  feeding  laying  hens  has 
been  established  as  a  result  of  the  egg-laying  contests 
that  have  been  held  in  several  parts  of  the  world.  The 
information  gained  from  these  experiments  has  estab- 
lished the  feeding  of  a  double  ration,  of  a  ration  com- 
posed partly  of  whole  or  broken  grains  and  partly  of  a 
dry-mash  mixture.  In  some  cases,  the  grain  mixture 
is  fed  from  self-feeding  hoppers;  in  other  cases,  the  grain 
is  hand  fed  into  the  litter.  In  all  cases  the  dry  mash 
should  be  fed  from  hoppers. 

An  excellent  ration  for  laying  hens  which  can  be  fed 
in  all  localities— north,  south,  east,  and  west— for  12 
months  of  the  year,  and  which  will  produce  a  satisfactory 
egg  yield,  is  as  follows: 

Dry  Mash  Scratch  Grain 

Wheat  bran,  100  Ib.  Cracked  corn,  30  Ib. 

Corn  meal,  50  Ib.  Whole  wheat,  30  Ib. 

Gluten  feed,  50  Ib.  Heavy  white  oats,  20  Ib. 

Ground  oats,  50  Ib.  Barley,  10  Ib. 

Wheat  middlings,  35  Ib.  Kafir  corn,  10  Ib. 

Beef  scraps,  35  Ib.  Buckwheat,  10  Ib. 
Low-grade  flour,   12  Ib. 


72  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

Mix  the  beef  scraps  with  the  flour.  After  this  has  been 
thoroughly  done  mix  them  into  the  other  meals.  Put  the 
dry  mash  in  a  self-feeding  hopper,  and  keep  it  before 
the  fowls  constantly  so  that  they  can  help  themselves. 
Feed  the  scratch  grain  in  deep  litter  so  that  the  hens 
must  scratch  and  dig  for  all  they  get;  feed  it  twice  a 
day,  morning  and  afternoon,  giving  for  each  hen  about 

1  oz.  of  grain  in  the  morning  and  2  oz.   in  the  afternoon. 
The  hens  must  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  green  food,  all 
they  will  eat  of  it;  also  grit,  oyster  shell,  and  plenty  of 
water. 

Another  method  of  feeding  is  to  give  no  grain  at  all 
until  after  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  thus  compelling 
the  hens  to  eat  freely  of  the  dry  mash  from  daylight;  at 

2  o'clock  scatter  in  the  litter  3  oz.  of  the  grain  mixture 
for  each  hen.     Where  self-feeding  grain  hoppers  are  used 
they    can   be    locked    at   night   so   that   no   grain    can    be 
worked   out,   thus  forcing  the  hens  to   eat   dry  mash   all 
day  until  2  o'clock,  at  which  time  the  self-feeding  grain 
hoppers  can  be  released  so  that  the  hens  can  feed  them- 
selves on  grain  from  2  o'clock  until  dark.     The  dry-mash 
mixture    is   a   1    to   3.1   nutritive   ratio;    the   scratch-grain 
mixture   is   a    1    to    7.7    nutritive    ratio.      If   the    hens   eat 
as    much    of    one    as    they    do    of    the    other    during    the 
day  they  will  have  a  ration  the  nutritive  ratio  of  which 
is  1  to  5.4. 

Other  rations  recommended  by  experiment  stations 
have  been  successfully  used;  the  most  prominent  among 
them  being  what  is  known  as  the  Maine  ration.  In  this 
method,  cracked  corn  is  fed  in  the  litter  early  in  the 
morning.  About  noon  a  grain  ration  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  wheat  and  oats  is  fed  at  the  rate  of  2  qt.  to  each 
50  hens.  The  dry  mash,  which  is  kept  constantly  before 
the  hens  in  hoppers,  is  composed  of  wheat  bran,  50  lb.; 
corn  meal,  25  lb. ;  gluten  meal,  25  lb.;  meat  scraps,  25  lb.; 
linseed  meal,  12  lb. ;  low-grade  flour,  25  lb.  The  meat 
scraps  should  always  be  mixed  into  the  flour,  when  flour 
is  used;  this  is  done  to  coat  the  meat  scraps  and  to 
separate  them  for  feeding.  A  plentiful  supply  of  green 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  73 

feed  with  grit,  oyster  shell,  and  water  is  a  prominent 
part  of  this  ration. 

The  Missouri  ration,  as  it  is  called,  is  highly  recom- 
mended by  the  Missouri  poultry  experimental  farm.  It 
is  composed  of  a  grain  mixture  of  200  Ib.  of  coarse 
cracked  corn  with  100  Ib.  of  wheat.  For  dry  mash,  ground 
oats  is  continually  before  the  hens  in  open  hoppers. 
When  the  ground  oats  cannot  be  obtained,  a  mixture 
composed  of  50  Ib.  of  wheat  bran,  25  Ib.  of  corn  meal,  and 
25  Ib.  of  shorts  or  middlings  is  used.  It  is  recommended 
that  some  of  this  dry-mash  mixture  be  moistened  with 
water  or  with  sour  milk  or  with  buttermilk  and  fed  to 
the  hens  during  the  afternoon  of  each  day.  A  plentiful 
supply  of  green  feed,  shell,  and  grit  has  a  prominent 
place  in  this  ration. 

A  ration  recommended  by  the  Ontario  (Canada)  Experi- 
ment Station  is  composed  of  whole  wheat  and  whole 
corn.  A  liberal  feeding  of  wheat  is  thrown  into  the 
litter  morning  and  noon  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  whole 
corn  fed  at  night.  A  dry  mash  is  used  with  this  grain 
mixture,  the  mash  being  composed  of  100  Ib.  each  of 
wheat  bran,  low-grade  flour,  and  barley  chop  or  meal. 
Some  of  this  dry-mash  mixture  is  fed  in  the  middle  of 
the  afternoon  as  a  wet  mash.  Boiled  vegetables,  waste 
bread  or  kitchen  scraps,  and  10-per-cent.  beef  scrap  are 
included  in  the  afternoon  mash  feed.  A  plentiful  supply 
of  green  feed  of  some  kind  with  grit,  oyster  shell,  and 
charcoal  are  considered  as  a  prominent  part  of  this 
ration. 

Quantity  of  Food  Required  by  One  Hen  in  a  Year. 
The  figures  for  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  one  hen 
in  a  year  given  in  the  accompanying  table  were  derived 
from  careful  records  of  the  food  eaten  by  several  hun- 
dred hens  in  a  year.  They  show  a  total  average  of  about 
4.86  oz.,  or  a  little  less  than  4  oz.  of  grain  and  meal  and 
about  %o  oz.  of  other  material  per  day  for  each  hen. 
Another  test  of  4,800  hens  shows  a  food  consumption  of 
3.96  oz.  of  grain  per  day  for  each,  besides  green  food  and 
grit. 


74 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


QUANTITY    OF    FOOD    REQUIRED    BY    ONE    HEN 
IN  A  YEAR 


Food 

Quantity 
Pounds 

Grain  of  all  kinds  and  meal  

900 

Oyster  shell  and  bone  

64 

Grit  

2  0 

Charcoal  

2  4 

Green  food  and  clover  hay  

100 

Total  

1108 

FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  DURING  MOLT 

Fowls  that  are  molting  should  have  good  nourishing 
food  in  order  properly  to  nourish  their  bodies  while 
they  are  under  the  unusual  strain  of  replenishing  the 
plumage.  Foods  rich  in  fat  and  protein  are  best  for  the 
the  purpose;  hence,  during  molting,  a  mash  that  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  linseed-oil-cake  meal  and  meat  is 
particularly  desirable. 

In  the  morning,  molting  fowls  should  have  a  moderate 
meal,  composed  of  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  cracked 
corn  and  whole  wheat. 

At  noon  they  should  have  all  they  will  eat  of  mash 
composed,  by  measure,  of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat  bran   4 

Wheat  middlings   3 

Ground    oats    3 

Meat  scrap  4 

Corn   meal    3 

Linseed-oil-cake    meal    4 

Low-grade  flour  1 

Alfalfa  meal  2 

During  the  first  week  of  the  molting  period  this  ration 
should  contain  only  1  part  each  of  meat  scrap  and  lin- 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  75 

seed-oil-cake  meal;  after  the  first  week  the  quantities 
of  these  materials  should  be  increased  at  the  rate  of 
l/2  part  per  day  every  other  day  until  the  quantities  given 
in  the  table  have  been  reached.  In  case  such  a  ration 
proves  to  be  too  laxative,  the  quantity  of  meat  and  lin- 
seed meal  is  lessened  and  l/2  part  of  fine  charcoal  is 
added  to  the  mixture. 

At  night  all  the  cracked  corn  and  wheat  they  will  eat 
is  fed  to  the  fowls. 

This  method  of  feeding  should  be  continued  until  the 
molt  is  complete,  after  which  a  laying  ration  is  fed  to 
the  hens. 

Attempts  to  force  molting  are  occasionally  successful, 
but  the  advantages  derived  from  the  practice  do  not 
usually  pay  for  the  trouble  caused.  To  force  molting, 
fowls  are  confined  in  a  small  house  for  about  3  wk., 
are  fed  very  sparingly,  but  all  the  fresh  water  they  will 
drink  is  given  to  them.  The  quantity  of  food  given 
should  be  gradually  reduced  until  at  the  end  of  the  first 
week  they  are  receiving  only  about  Yz  of  the  usual  food 
supply.  During  the  second  and  third  weeks  not  more 
than  1  oz.  of  grain,  or  J4  of  a  ration,  should  be  fed  per 
day  to  each  fowl.  This  partial  starvation  will  reduce 
flesh  and  fat  and  dry  the  oil  from  the  feathers,  causing 
them  to  drop  very  readily.  At  the  end  of  the  third  week 
the  fowls  should  be  liberated  and  the  food  supply  gradu- 
ally increased.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth  week  they 
should  receive  full  rations. 


FEEDING  OF  CHICKS  FOR  BROILERS 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  the  rearing  of 
poultry  is  the  feeding  of  the  cockerels  for  squab  size 
and  larger  broilers.  A  good  plan  is  to  feed  a  bread 
made  of  meals,  the  meal  mixture  to  contain  2  cups  of 
wheat  middlings,  2  cups  of  corn  meal,  2  tablespoonfuls 
of  meat  meal,  1  raw  egg,  1  tablespoonful  of  baking  pow- 
der, and  sufficient  water  or  milk  to  give  a  proper  con- 


76  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

sistency  to  the  baking.  The  mixture  should  be  put  into 
a  pan  the  same  as  is  corn  bread  and  be  baked  until 
thoroughly  done.  This  should  be  fed  plentifully  to  the 
chicks  for  one  week;  thereafter,  feed  them  all  the  wet 
mash  they  will  eat.  This  mash  should  be  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  ground  oats,  corn  meal,  and  wheat  mid- 
dlings, into  which  1  pt.  of  beef  scraps  should  be  mixed 
for  each  3  qt.  of  the  meal  mixture.  The  mash  should 
be  moistened  with  milk  or  water  and  the  chicks  should 
have  all  they  will  eat  of  it  morning  and  noon.  For  night 
feeding  they  should  have  all  the  cracked  corn  they  will 
eat.  The  main  feature  of  importance  is  that  the  chicks 
shall  have  all  they  will  eat  three  times  a  day  without 
any  being  left  to  sour.  If  either  sour  milk  or  buttermilk 
can  be  used  for  moistening  the  mash,  better  results  will 
be  obtained  than  will  come  from  feeding  the  mash 
moistened  with  water,  yet  water  will  do  for  the  purpose 
when,  milk  is  lacking. 

The  English  method  of  feeding  broilers  differs  from 
the  methods  used  in  this  country.  One  broiler  plant  in 
England  feeds  almost  exclusively  ground  oats,  boiled 
rice,  and  boiled  wheat.  The  broilers  are  very  fond  of 
the  boiled  rice  and  wheat,  and  it  is  thought  that  such 
feeding  is  most  profitable.  The  ground  oats  are  mois- 
tened with  milk  and  fed  early  in  the  morning.  The 
second  feed  is  composed  of  either  cooked  rice  or  cooked 
wheat;  the  third  feeding  is  ground  oats  mixed  with  milk, 
and  the  fourth,  either  the  cooked  rice  or  the  wheat.  If 
the  rice  is  fed  in  the  morning,  cooked  wheat  is  used  for 
the  fourth  feeding.  For  the  last  feeding  at  night  they 
have  all  of  the  cooked  rice  and  cooked  wheat  they  will 
eat.  While  this  method  of  feeding  is  very  exacting,  it 
is  said  that  the  best  small  size  broilers  sent  to  London 
market  are  fed  in  this  way. 


-FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  77 

SPECIAL  FEEDING  MIXTURES 

It  not  unusual  to  have  in  every  flock  some  chicks  that 
grow  their  feathers  very  slowly.  This  may  come  from 
lack  of  mineral  elements  in  the  system.  Mineral  matters 
compose  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  body  weight  of  birds, 
and  for  the  most  part  they  enter  into  the  formation  of 
bone  and  feathers.  All  feed  rations  should  contain  suffi- 
cient of  these  substances,  which  are  largely  lime,  potash, 
and  calcium  phosphate.  Calcium  phosphate  from  bone 
is  most  beneficial,  although  both  bone  and  meat  scraps 
are  necessary  for  a  well-formed  ration.  A  dry-mash 
mixture  containing  these  elements  can  be  made  of  wheat 
bran,  20  lb.;  ground  oats,  10  Ib. ;  gluten  meal,  5  lb.;  corn 
meal,  5  lb.;  alfalfa  meal,  5  lb.;  meat  scraps,  3  lb.;  low- 
grade  flour,  1  lb. ;  bone  meal  or  granulated  bone,  3  lb. 

Mix  the  meat  scraps  into  the  flour.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  coating  them  thoroughly  so  as  to  keep  the 
particles  separated  for  better  mixing  into  the  meals. 
The  greater  part  of  all  the  husks  should  be  sifted  out 
of  the  ground  oats  and  the  larger  particles  should  be 
sifted  out  of  the  meat  scraps.  The  alfalfa  meal  should 
be  pure  and  ground  fine.  Meat  scraps  should  be  of  excel- 
lent quality. 

This  dry  mash  mixture  is  fine  for  growing  chicks,  as 
it  hastens  the  growth  of  the  feathers,  bone,  and  muscle. 
It  contains  the  elements  that  satisfy  the  growing  chicks 
and  to  some  extent  prevents  feather  pulling  and  the 
eating  of  their  toes.  This  same  dry  mash  can  be  used 
for  all  fowls  kept  in  confinement.  It  should  be  fed  in 
hoppers. 

Bread-and-Milk  Mixture.— Moisten  stale  bread  with 
milk,  either  sweet  milk,  sour  milk,  or  buttermilk.  The 
milk  may  be  warmed  a  little,  but  not  enough  to  boil  or 
to  set  the  curds.  After  the  bread  is  thoroughly  softened 
with  the  milk  and  mixed  almost  to  a  liquid,  add  ground 
oats  and  corn  meal  in  equal  parts,  making  the  mixture 
into  a  crumbly  mass.  Add  salt,  not  more  than  a  stroked 
teaspoonful  to  100  chickens.  This  mixture  is  excellent 


78  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

for  feeding  to  growing  cockerels  or  pullets  that  are  not 
doing  well.  It  is  equally  fine  for  feeding  to  pullets 
within  a  month  of  laying.  When  fed  plentifully  to 
young  stock  it  will  fatten  them  quickly  for  market. 
When  feeding  for  quick  growth  for  market,  feed  all  they 
will  eat  of  it  twice  a  day,  with  a  heavy  feeding  of 
cracked  corn  at  night.  When  feeding  for  growth  of  pul- 
lets, feed  all  they  will  eat  of  it  at  noon.  This  mash 
should  be  fed  as  an  extra  meal;  in  all  cases  feed  all 
they  will  eat  up  clean.  A  plentiful  supply  of  green  feed 
must  be  fed  with  bread-and-milk  mixture. 

Cleansing  Mixture.— Laying  hens  that  are  plentifully 
fed  on  concentrated  feed  should  occasionally  have  a 
cleansing  mixture  of  some  kind  fed  in  their  ration.  A 
mixture  may  be  made  of  8  oz.  of  Epsom  salts  and  8  oz. 
of  flowers  of  sulphur  mixed  thoroughly;  this  should  be 
added  to  6  qt.  of  dry  mash  and  all  mixed  thoroughly. 
Sufficient  of  this  for  one  feeding  should  be  moistened 
with  milk  or  water  and  fed  to  the  laying  hens  once 
every  two  or  three  weeks  or  after  a  spell  of  very  hot 
or  very  wet  weather.  It  will  relieve  the  intestines  and 
expel  intestinal  worms,  if  any  are  present.  The  mixture 
should  not  be  fed  oftener,  nor  should  more  be  used,  than 
is  here  recommended. 


FEEDING   OF  TURKEYS 

Poults  should  have  nourishing  food  in  small  particles 
so  that  they  will  be  able  to  digest  it  properly.  No  sour 
3r  fermented  food,  chopped  green  bone,  raw  meat,  or 
large  quantities  of  millet  seed,  cottage  cheese,  or  wet  or 
sloppy  foods  should  ever  be  fed  to  poults.  Poults  require 
plenty  of  grit  and  fresh  water. 

A  ration  of  stale  bread  crumbs  and  a  ration  made  up 
of  equal  parts  of  stale  bread  crumbs,  finely  chopped 
hard-boiled  eggs,  and  dandelion  leaves,  fed  alternately, 
is  a  good  method  of  feeding  poults. 

Turkeys  on  a  range  plentifully  supplied  with  natural 
foods  that  they  like  will  need  much  less  feeding  than 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  79 

turkeys  that  are  compelled  to  live  on  a  range  where  the 
natural  food  supply  is  scanty.  Turkeys  should  have 
plenty  of  corn,  wheat,  and  some  oats,  the  quantities  and 
proportions  varying  with  the  character  of  the  food  on 
their  range. 


FEEDING    OF   GUINEA   FOWLS 

Like  poults,  young  guinea  fowls  should  be  fed  on 
finely  divided  foods,  and  water  should  be  given  to  them 
in  very  shallow  vessels  to  prevent  the  young  birds  from 
drowning  in  them.  Grit  "and  plenty  of  fresh  water  should 
be  supplied. 

A  ration  suitable  for  young  guinea  fowls  is  composed, 
by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Very   fine   oatmeal    2 

Finely  cracked  wheat  2 

Rape   seed    2 

Canary  seed  1 

Ant's  eggs,  or  very  small  particles  of 
cooked  meat,  or  finely  chopped  hard- 
boiled  eggs 1 

Guinea  fowls  for  market  can  be  fattened  on  milk 
curds,  steamed  hulled  oats,  and  warm  mash.  If  these 
feeds  are  not  available,  guinea  fowls  can  be  satisfac- 
torily fattened  on  a  ration  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
ground  oats,  barley  meal,  and  table  scraps. 


FEEDING  OF  PHEASANTS 

The  first  food  of  young  pheasants  should  be  composed, 
by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  •  Parts 

Very   small  bread  crumbs   1 

Canary   seed    1 

Fine  grit   «...  1 

Very  fine  corn  grits  1 


80  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

If  the  pheasants  are  2  da.  old,  about  10%  of  cooked 
lean  meat  may  be  added.  Stale  bread  softened  in  sweet 
milk  and  a  custard  of  eggs  and  milk  put  together  with 
enough  stale  bread  crumbs  to  soak  up  the  greater  part 
of  the  moisture,  are  good  foods  for  young  pheasants.  A 
certain  quantity  of  meal  worms  may  be  fed  to  mature 
pheasants,  although  a  ration  composed  by  measure,  as 
follows,  is  preferable: 

Food  Parts 

Finely  chopped  hard-boiled  eggs 1 

Crushed  hemp  seed  1 

Stale  bread  crumbs    1 

Oatmeal    1 

Finely   chopped  cooked  lean  meat l/i 

Finely  chopped  green  food  should  also 
be  fed. 


FEEDING   OF  DUCKS 

During  the  fall,  in  addition  to  green  food,  ducks  should 
have  twice  a  day  as  much  as  they  will  eat  of  a  mash 
consisting,  by  measure,  of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Corn    meal    4 

Wheat    bran    12 

Low-grade  wheat  flour 1 

Fine  grit  /4 

A  small  quantity  of  meat  scrap  may  be  added  to  this 
ration  if  desired. 

During  the  winter,  ducks  should  have  a  liberal  supply 
of  chopped  green  feed.  Twice  a  day  they  should  have 
all  they  will  eat  of  a  mash  feed  composed,  by  measure, 
as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat   bran    5 

Corn  mtfal   6 

Low-grade  wheat  flour   1 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  81 

A  small  quantity  of  meat  scrap  may  be  added  to  this 
ration  if  desired. 

During  the  laying  season  ducks  will  eat  about  1  pt. 
of  food  each  per  day.  Their  food  should  always  consist 
of  at  least  2  or  3%  of  grit,  ground  oyster  shells,  or  some 
similar  material. 

A  suitable  feed  for  laying  ducks,  when  they  have  an 
ample  supply  of  green  food,  is  a  mash  food  composed,  by 
measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat  bran    • 3 

Ground  oats  t —       3 

Corn  meal  3 

Low-grade  wheat  flour  1 

Meat  scrap  1 

Many  rations  are  used  for  fattening  broiler  ducks  for 
market.     A  good  one  to  use  for  the  10  da.  or  2  wk.  pre- 
vious to  killing  is  composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 
Food  Parts 

Corn  meal 10 

Wheat  bran  4 

Wheat  middlings  4 

Meat  scrap    3 

Low-grade   wheat   flour    1 

Green   feed    2 

Coarse  sand  1 

No  green  stuff  should  be  fed  during  the  last  week  of 
fattening,  but  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  must  always 
be  furnished. 

Ducklings  intended  for  breeders  are  fed  on  a  ration 
composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat  bran    10 

Wheat  middlings  6 

Corn  meal  3 

Low-grade  wheat  flour  1 

Meat  scrap  1 

Sand  1 


82  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

This  is  mixed  into  a  crumbly  state  by  the  addition 
of  milk  or  water  and  fed  three  times  daily.  In  some 
cases,  instead  of  wheat  bran  6  parts  of  bran  and  4  parts 
of  ground  oats  are  substituted. 

Another  ration  for  ducklings  intended  for  breeders  is 
composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn   meal    6 

Wheat    bran    6 

Wheat  middlings   6 

Meat  scrap' 1 

All  meal  fed  to  ducks  as  a  mash  feed  must  be  mois- 
tened with  either  water  or  milk,  and  must  be  mixed 
dry  enough  so  that  the  ducks  can  shovel  it  up  with  their 
bills.  They  cannot  do  this  well  if  the  mash  is  sticky. 

FEEDING  OF  YOUNG  DUCKLINGS 

There  are  several  methods  of  feeding  young  ducklings; 
one  is  to  give  either  a  mixture  of  rolled  oats  and  bread 
crumbs  in  equal  parts  with  a  little  fine  grit  mixed  into 
it,  all  moistened  either  with  water  or  milk,  preferably 
milk.  The  meals  should  be  moistened  slightly  so  that 
they  will  scatter  about  and  not  stick  together.  The  little 
ducklings  can  shovel  up  this  kind  of  a  mixture  from  a 
flat  board.  Beginning  on  the  third  day,  add  some  bran 
and  corn  meal  in  about  equal  parts  by  measure  with 
the  bread  crumbs  and  rolled  oats.  When  the  ducklings 
are  a  week  old,  feed  them  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  ground  oats,  and  corn 
meal,  with  some  green  stuff  and  some  beef  scraps  mixed 
into  the  meal.  The  green  stuff  should  always  be  cut 
into  very  small  pieces  and  be  mixed  into  the  meal, 
which  should  be  moistened  with  water  or  milk.  Never 
moisten  the  feed  for  ducklings  so  that  it  will  stick 
together  or  be  sloppy;  have  it  only  slightly  moistened 
so  that  it  will  be  easily  shoveled  up  by  the  ducks. 

One  rule  that  must  be  observed  when  feeding  duck- 
lings is  to  have  drinking  water  continually  before  them 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  83 

and  yet  not  where  they  can  run  through  it.  It  is  a 
habit  of  ducklings  to  take  a  mouthful  or  two  of  feed, 
then  some  water.  They  will  run  backwards  and  for- 
wards from  the  feed  trough  to  the  water,  eating  and 
drinking  alternately  until  they  have  finished.  If  duck- 
lings are  fed  on  dry  grain  or  dry  food  of  any  kind  with- 
out plenty  of  water  they  will  frequently  choke,  stagger, 
fall  over,  and  in  some  cases  die. 

Another  good  plan  for  feeding  ducklings  is  to  teach 
them  to  take  from  a  trough  cracked  corn,  whole  wheat, 
and  any  other  kind  of  grain  without  husks,  these  grains 
to  be  submerged  in  water.  After  being  fed  in  this  way 
for  several  weeks,  they  can  be  gradually  taught  to  eat 
dry  grain  or  even  whole  corn  without  injury,  provided 
they  have  water  to  go  to  at  will;  but  they  cannot  stand 
such  feeding  when  very  young. 

Dr.  Prince  T.  Woods,  of  Massachusetts,  recommends 
the  following  formula  for  feeding  ducklings  less  than 
4  da.  old:  Mix  4  qt.  of  wheat  bran,  1  qt.  of  corn  meal, 
1  qt.  of  low-grade  flour,  4  oz.  of  grit  of  small  size; 
moisten  some  of  this  mixture  with  cold  water  and  feed 
the  ducklings  four  times  a  day  all  they  will  eat  of  it  in 
a  short  period  of  time.  After  the  ducklings  are  4  da. 
old  they  may  be  fed  from  this  same  mixture  of  meals 
with  12  oz.  of  beef  scraps  of  small  size  added  to  the 
mixture.  When  feeding  beef  scraps  to  young  ducklings 
it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  scald  the  beef  scraps  sepa- 
rately, stir  them  up,  mix  them  into  the  meal;  but  when 
feeding,  add  sufficient  cold  water  to  moisten  the  whole 
of  it  slightly,  so  that  it  is  of  a  proper  consistency  for  the 
ducks.  After  the  ducklings  are  a  week  old,  green  stuff 
of  some  kind  should -be  cut  up  very  small  and  mixed  in 
with  the  feed.  After  the  ducklings  are  3  wk.  old,  con- 
tinue to  feed  them  from  the  same  meal  mixture,  adding 
double  the  quantity  of  beef  scrap  and  giving  them  more 
green  feed. 


84  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

FEEDING    OF    GEESE 

A  simple  ration  for  goslings  is  composed,  by  measure, 
of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Corn  meal  1 

Wheat  bran   1 

Ground  oats  1 

Table  scraps 1 

This  should  be  slightly  moistened  with  either  water  or 
milk. 

Geese  are  by  nature  grazing  birds,  and  the  greater 
part  of  their  living  consists  of  green  food.  Because  of 
their  lack  of  a  crop,  geese  should  be  fed  on  ground  corn 
in  the  form  of  a  slightly  warmed  mash.  During  the 
winter,  in  addition  to  green  food,  the  matured  geese 
should  have  once  a  day  all  they  will  eat  of  a  ration 
composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn    meal    .- 3 

Wheat  bran    3 

Ground   bats    3 

This  should  be  moistened  into  a  crumbly  mass. 
During   the    winter   this    same   ration    with   4   parts   of 
steamed  clover  added  is  suitable. 

The  following  rations  are  suitable  for  fattening  geese 
for  market: 

They  should  be  fed  liberally  three  times  a  day.  The 
morning  and  noon  feeds  should  consist,  by  measure,  of 
the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Corn  meal  6 

Ground    oats    6 

Meat    scrap    1 

This  mixture  should  be  slightly  moistened  and  mixed 
until  it  assumes  a  crumbly  state.  During  the  last  10 
da.  of  feeding  the  quantity  of  meat  in  the  ration  should 
be  doubled. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  85 

In   the  evening  the  geese  should  be  fed  all  they  will 
eat  of  a  ration  composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 
Food  Parts 

Cracked    corn   boiled   until    soft 1 

Corn    meal    1 

Wheat  middlings   1 


FEEDING  OF  WILD  WATER  FOWLS 

Where  wild  water  fowls  have  the  freedom  of  a  large 
enough  pasture,  they  will  graze  the  greater  part  of  their 
living,  but  it  is  always  advisable  to  keep  near  at  hand 
covered  hoppers  where  the  fowls  may  help  themselves  at 
will.  For  mature  ducks  and  geese,  the  hopper  should  be 
kept  filled  with  a  dry  mixture  composed,  by  measure,  as 
follows: 

Food  Parts 

Ground   oats    1 

Cracked   corn    1 

Wheat  bran   ....  1 


FEEDING  OF  PIGEONS 

The  grains  most  suitable  for  feeding  to  pigeons  are 
wheat,  corn,  buckwheat,  barley,  peas,  vetch  seed,  hulled 
oats,  millet,  rice,  hemp  seed,  and  canary  seed.  No  large 
quantity  of  buckwheat,  barley,  hulled  oats,  or  Kafir  corn, 
should  be  fed  to  pigeons,  because  these  grains  contain 
a  large  percentage  of  crude  fiber. 

Pigeons  that  are  not  feeding  their  young  may  con- 
sume as  little  as  2  oz.  of  grain  each,  per  day,  but  those 
feeding  their  young  will  require  perhaps  as  much  as  4  oz. 
per  day. 

A  suitable  ration  for  pigeons  is  composed,  by  measure, 
as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn    2 

Wheat    1 

Peas    1 


C6  INCUBATION 

During  the  fall  and  when  the  pigeons  are  molting, 
a  good  ration  for  them  is  composed,  by  measure,  as 
follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn    4 

Wheat    4 

Peas   4 

Millet    2 

Vetch  seed 1 

Flaxseed    1 

Hemp    seed    , ^ 

A  ration  for  the  hand  feeding  of  pigeons,  that  is,  for 
scattering  on  the  floor  of  the  house,  is  composed,  by 
measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Canada    peas    , 3 

Cracked    corn    1 

Wheat    1 

Kafir  corn   1 


INCUBATION 

In  poultry,  the  reproductive  process  is  accomplished 
in  two  stages.  The  egg  is  first  produced,  developed, 
fertilized  within  the  body  of  the  hen,  and  laid.  Then 
the  egg  is  subjected  to  a  certain  temperature  (100°  F. 
or  a  little  higher)  for  about  21  da.,  during  which  time 
the  embryo  develops  and  hatches  out  of  the  shell  as  a 
chick.  The  process  of  developing  the  embryo  within 
the  egg  by  means  of  heat  is  called  incubation.  When 
this  is  carried  on  by  a  hen,  it  is  known  as  natural 
incubation;  when  incubation  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  machine,  oven,  or  other  device,  it  is  known  as 
artificial  incubation.  Man  has  little  control  over  the 
reproductive  process  in  its  first  stage  except  so  far  as 
the  selection  of  the  breeders  is  concerned;  in  the  second 
stage,  however,  if  artificial  incubation  is  practiced,  he 


INCUBATION  87 

can,  by  his  methods  of  conducting  the  process,  greatly 
influence  the  development  and  future  well-being  of  the 
chick. 

Fertilization  of  the  Egg.— In  order  that  eggs  shall 
hatch,  the  hen  that  lays  them  must  have  been  mated 
with  the  male.  The  actual  fertilization  of  the  egg 
probably  takes  place  as  the  yolk  enters  the  oviduct. 
In  the  process  of  fertilization  the  germ  from  the  male 
comes  in  contact  with  the  germ  cell,  or  blastoderm,  and 
causes  it  to  develop,  provided  that  it  is  exposed  to  the 
right  temperature.  Hatchable  eggs  are  those  that  are 
fertilized  and  have  vitality  enough  to  insure  the  produc- 
tion of  a  living  chick. 

Eggs  are  usually  fertile  up  to  and  including  those  laid 
the  ninth  day  after  the  hens  are  separated  from  the 
males,  and  fertilization  is  impossible  after  the  sexes 
have  been  separated  for  12  da.  or  more.  Eggs  may  safely 
be  counted  as  fertile  after  the  males  have  been  with 
the  hens  for  9  da.  or  more. 

The  eggs  of  all  kinds  of  fowls  are  more  apt  to  be 
fertile  during  the  spring  and  early  summer  than  at  any 
other  time.  Fertility  begins  to  decline  with  the  com- 
mencement of  molting,  and  during  the  fall  and  winter 
the  production  of  fertile  eggs  is  at  the  minimum.  The 
average  production  occurs  in  January  or  soon  after. 


NATURAL  INCUBATION 

The  poultryman  very  naturally  prefers  the  incubator 
to  the  hen  for  hatching  chicks.  This  preference  has 
brought  incubators  into  general  use  and  so  few  chicks 
are  hatched  by  hens  as  to  have  made  this  process  nearly 
a  lost  art.  Yet  those  who  give  the  most  thought  to 
poultry  culture  know  that  the  best  chicks  grown  are 
hatched  and  reared  by  the  mother  hen.  Chicks  hatched 
and  reared  artificially  do  better  during  the  cold  weather 
than  chicks  hatched  and  reared  naturally.  As  soon  as 
spring  arrives,  a  brood  of  chicks  with  the  mother  hen 


SS  INCUBATION 

will  do  much  better  than  chicks  hovered  tinder  the 
heated  brooders.  Although  incubators  are  so  generally 
used,  there  are  some  farms  where  a  large  number  of 
chicks  are  hatched  and  brooded  by  hens. 

Where  but  few  chicks  are  reared,  and  where  there  is 
no  necessity  for  early  hatching,  it  would  be  quite  as 
well  and  less  troublesome  to  hatch  and  rear  chicks  with 
broody  hens.  The  chicks  so  hatched  and  reared  will,  if 
properly  cared  for,  be  more  vigorous  than  chicks  hatched 
artificially. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  "How  do  fanciers 
hatch  and  rear  their  chicks?"  One  of  the  most  ardent 
fanciers  says  that  fanciers  unquestionably  produce  their 
best  specimens  by  natural  incubation.  He  says  also  that 
artificial  incubation  has  absorbed  the  attention  of  our 
investigators  and  others  to  such  an  extent  that  little  is 
written  or  taught  of  the  old-fashioned  but  trustworthy, 
natural  method.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  most  flocks 
raised  by  amateurs  are  hatched  by  hens,  some  instruc- 
tion bearing  upon  this  particular  method  is  necessary. 

To  hatch  eggs  successfully  it  is  well  to  follow  the 
following  precepts:  "Select  a  quiet  hen;  discard  one 
that  uses  her  voice  constantly.  Have  the  nest  ready 
before  removing  her  from  the  laying  coop.  Set  the  hen 
in  such  a  manner  that  she  may  walk  on  the  nest  and 
not  be  obliged  to  jump  up  or  down  to  reach  the  eggs,  for 
such  a  procedure  means  broken  eggs  or  crushed  chicks. 
Before  setting  and  between  hatches,  paint  all  the  wood- 
work with  kerosene.  This  is  particularly  important  in 
warm  weather.  Dust  the  hen  thoroughly  with  insect  or 
lice  powder  before  placing  her  on  the  nest.  Repeat  this 
4  da.  before  hatching  time." 

Such  words  of  encouragement  for  natural  brooding 
might  well  be  considered  by  all  those  who  rear  but  a 
few  chicks,  and  even  by  those  who  rear  several  hundred 
of  them.  Since  it  is  always  well  to  hatch  part  of  the 
chicks  and  rear  them  with  mother  hens,  these  directions 
should  be  valuable  to  all  persons  engaged  in  raising 
poultry. 


INCUBATION 


89 


Box  Nest. — Nests  for  sitting  hens  can  be  made  from 
boxes  from  14  to  16  in.  square.  A  box  «from  9  to  12  in. 
deep  and  from  15  to  18  in.  wide  and  long  has  about  the 
correct  dimensions.  Deep  nests  protect  the  eggs  from 
the  cold  below.  The  entire  box  should  be  lined  with 
hay,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  nest,  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
should  be  sufficiently  deep  to  incline  the  eggs  slightly 
toward  the  middle  and  flat  enough  to  avoid  crowding  or 
piling  the  eggs.  Several  nests  like  this  can  be  placed 
on  the  floor  of  a  room  with  each  nest  occupied  by  a 
sitting  hen.  When  this  is  done,  hens  that  are  accus- 
tomed to  being  together  should  occupy  the  nests,  other- 


FIG.  1  FIG.  2 

wise,  they  will  fight.  If  hens  are  strangers,  their  nests 
must  be  enclosed  to  keep  them  from  coming  together 
and  the  hens  should  be  carefully  watched  when  they 
leave  their  nests. 

Hens  for  Sitting.— Broody  hens  that  are  quiet  and 
tractable  should  be  selected  for  hatching  purposes. 
Those  that  are  wild  and  unmanageable  are  not  suitable 
for  sitting  or  for  mothers  after  the  chicks  are  hatched. 
The  use  of  hens  with  scaly  legs  should  be  avoided,  as 
this  ailment  is  liable  to  be  transmitted  to  the  chicks. 
Hens  that  are  to  be  set  in  the  same  room  should  all  come 
from  the  same  flock.  Before  the  hen  is  placed  in  posi- 
tion, the  nest  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  'insect 
powder  and  the  body  of  the  hen  covered  with  it.  The 
powder  should  be  well  worked  in  down  to  the  skin  and 


90  INCUBATION 

the  work  should  be  done  with  especial  care  about  the 
vent,  under  the  wings,  and  around  the  neck.  This 
operation  should  be  repeated  on  the  seventh  and  four- 
teenth days  of  the  incubation  period.  In  this  way  only 
are  vermin  kept  from  the  hens  and  the  chicks  saved 
from  their  ravages.  Non-fertile,  or  clear,  eggs  should 
be  placed  under  the  hen  for  2  or  3  days  to  test  her.  If 
she  is  faithful  and  attentive  to  these  she  may  be  trusted 
with  selected  eggs.  If  she  pushes  them  under  her  body 
with  her  head,  it  is  a  sign  that  she  will  be  a  good  sitter 
and  a  good  mother. 

Care  of  Nest  and  Hen.— To  dust  the  hen  and  nest  with 
insect  powder  is  fatal  to  body  lice,  and  red  mites  may 
be  kept  away  with  kerosene  oil  or  turpentine;  1  oz.  of 
naphthalene  flakes  dissolved  in  3  gills  of  kerosene  oil 
makes  an  excellent  application  to  keep  the  latter  pest 
away  from  the  nest  boxes.  If  this  solution  is  liberally 
used  in  cracks  and  crevices  of  nest  boxes,  there  will  be 
very  little  trouble  from  mites;  and  where  mites  are 
abundant  this  preparation  should  be  freely  used  on  all 
the  woodwork  of  the  nest  every  time  a  hatch  is  taken 
off.  When  the  day  of  hatching  arrives  the  nest  is  flat- 
tened out  in  order  to  make  more  room,  for  if  the  eggs 
are  crowded  too  close  together  the  chicks  are  liable  to 
be  smothered  as  they  emerge  from  the  shell.  The  hens 
and  chicks  should  not  be  removed  from  the  nest  until 
the  beginning  of  the  second  day  after  hatching,  nor 
should  the  chicks  be  fed  until  the  third  day  after  the 
hatch  begins.  If  the  nest  is  to  be  used  again,  all  the 
old  nesting  material  should  be  removed  and  burned,  and 
the  nest  box  itself  should  be  well  cleaned  before  making 
another  nest  of  new  material. 

Number  and  Arrangement  of  Eggs.— A  setting  of  eggs 
should  consist  of  an  odd  number.  Thirteen  eggs  are 
generally  considered  as  a  setting,  and  they  are  arranged 
in  the  nest  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  eggs  should  be 
uniform  in  size,  for  if  some  are  small  and  others  large 
the  body  of  the  hen  will  not  come  close  to  the  smaller 
ones  and  the  temperature  of  the  eggs  will  not  be  uni- 


INCUBATION  91 

form.  Eggs  of  irregular  size  are  unfit  for  incubation. 
Eggs  of  this  kind  seldom,  if  ever,  produce  perfect  chicks. 
Eggs  set  under  hens  gain  a  smooth  gloss  from  contact 
with  the  body  of  the  hen.  By  this  means,  as  the  process  of 
incubation  advances,  the  pores  of  the  eggshell  are  closed. 

Moving  the  Broody  Hen.— Broody  hens  of  quiet  dis- 
positions can  be  moved  anywhere  and  may  be  actually 
placed  on  the  nests  if  they  are  properly  handled.  To 
move  a  sitting  hen,  place  the  left  hand  gently  under 
her  breast  bone,  and  take  the  shanks  in  the  right  hand 
with  one  finger  between  them.  Clasp  her  firmly  but 
gently;  raise  her  from  the  nest,  holding  her  against  the 
body  with  the  head  toward  you  and  the  tail  away  from 
you.  Do  not  carry  her  by  the  shanks,  head  hanging 
down.  Place  the  hen  gently  on  the  nest,  in  which 
should  be  a  few  test  eggs;  settle  her  quietly  with  one 
hand  on  her  back,  the  other  smoothing  her  head — just 
a  little  of  this— then  remove  the  hands  and  cover  or 
close  the  hen  in  the  nest.  If  she  settles  down  at  once 
on  the  nest  and  turns  the  eggs  with  the  motion  of  her 
body  and  wings,  moving  has  been  successful;  if  she  is 
restless,  shut  her  in  the  nest  and  do  not  disturb  her  until 
morning.  It  is  always  best  to  move  broody  hens  at 
night.  If  the  hen  takes  quietly  to  the  nest  and  eggs, 
as  she  is  apt  to  do  during  the  night,  let  her  remain 
undisturbed  until  an  hour  before  sundown,  then  permit 
her  to  come  from  the  nest  for  food  and  water.  If  she 
refuses  to  sit  during  the  night  and  day,  she  had  best 
be  returned  to  the  flock  of  hens. 

Care  of  Sitting  Hens.— If  the  hen  is  quiet  and  willing 
to  sit,  dust  her  body  with  insect  powder  as  already 
described  and  let  her  stay  the  second  day  on  the  nest, 
permitting  her  to  feed  before  noon  of  the  second  day. 
If  she  returns  to  the  nest  herself,  all  is  well;  if  she 
does  not,  place  her  on  the  nest  again.  After  2  da.  of 
proper  behavior  on  the  part  of  the  hen,  dust  the  nest 
and  the  hen's  body  again  with  the  insect  powder,  and 
place  an  odd  number  of  eggs  in  the  nest.  Some -hens 
can  cover  13  eggs,  others  only  9  or  11.  Do  not  crowd 


92  INCUBATION 

too  many  eggs  into  the  nest,  for  the  best  returns  come 
from  too  few  rather  than  from  too  many  eggs  in  the  nest. 

Broody  or  sitting  hens  must  be  kept  quiet  and  undis- 
turbed, except  at  feeding  time,  which  should  occur  at 
the  same  hour  each  day.  This  statement  refers  to  hens 
that  are  confined  to  their  nests.  Hens  that  come  and 
go  at  will  should  have  food  and  water  close  at  hand, 
from  which  they  may  help  themselves  at  any  time. 
Corn  and  wheat  with  grit  and  shell  are  perhaps  the  best 
foods  for  sitting  hens.  Fresh  water  should  also  be 
provided  each  day.  A  dust  bath  is  a  necessity  for 
health  and  cleanliness.  If  any  eggs  are  broken  in  the 
nest,  they  should  be  removed  without  delay,  and  the 
nest  should  be  cleaned.  If  the  eggs  in  the  nest  become 
soiled,  they  should,  if  possible,  be  cleaned  without  wash- 
ing them.  This  cleaning  may  be  done  by  scraping  them 
with  a  dull  knife  or  with  the  thumb  nail;  if  washing  is 
indispensable,  the  eggs  must  be  immersed  in  water  the 
temperature  of  which  is  90°  F.,  or  a  little  less— not  more; 
the  dirty  coating  on  the  shell  should  be  softened  and 
removed  with  as  little  rubbing  as  possible.  When  the 
nest  and  eggs  have  been  cleaned,  the  eggs  should  be 
replaced  under  the  hen.  Eggs  that  have  been  washed 
do  not  hatch  as  well  as  those  that  have  not  been  so  treated. 

Feeding  the  Sitting  Hen.— Hens  that  are  sitting  must 
be  regularly  fed  on  good,  solid  grain.  They  should  have 
at  each  feeding  grain  enough  to  last  24  hr.  Whole  corn 
that  is  dry  and  hard,  wheat,  and  some  shell  and  grit 
must  be  supplied.  Hens  that  cannot  come  from  the  nest 
at  will  should  be  liberated  or  taken  from  the  nest  to 
feed.  Their  crops  should  be  felt  each  day.  If  they  are 
not  sufficiently  fed,  they  will  lose  fat  and  their  temper- 
ature will  decrease,  so  that  the  eggs  will  not  be  properly 
warmed.  When  the  hens  come  and  go  from  the  nest  at 
will,  food  grit,  and  water  must  be  placed  where  they 
can  help  themselves  and  at  the  same  time  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  other  hens.  Looseness  of  bowels  at  this  time 
should  be  avoided,  as  such  a  condition  weakens  the  hens 
and  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  body.  In  returning 


INCUBATION  93 

the  hen  to  the  nest  she  should  be  placed  on  the  edge  of 
the  nest  and  be  permitted  to  settle  on  the  eggs  as  she 
will;  she  should  never  be  forced  or  hurried. 

Period  of  Incubation. — Fresh-laid  eggs  hatch  in  fewer 
hours  than  eggs  that  are  kept  2  wk.  or  longer  before 
incubation  begins.  After  eggs  are  4  wk.  old,  their 
vitality  will  probably  be  insufficient  to  produce  chicks 
that  will  grow  to  maturity.  In  some  instances,  eggs 
more  than  3  mo.  old  have  produced  chicks  that  grew  to 
maturity.  These  eggs,  however,  were  unusually  strong 
in  vitality  and  were  cared  for  in  the  most  careful  man- 
ner prior  to  being  placed  under  hens  for  hatching. 

Fresh-laid  eggs,  if  placed  for  incubation  within  24  or 
48  hr.  of  laying,  will  hatch  in  from  8  to  12  hr.  less  time 
than  eggs  that  were  older  when  placed  for  incubation. 
Eggs  for  hatching  may  be  safely  kept  for  2  wk.,  pro- 
vided they  are  kept  where  the  temperature  is  even  and 
about  55°  F.  Such  eggs  should  be  moved  about  a  little 
each  day.  The  more  vigorous  the  hens  that  lay  the  eggs, 
the  stronger  will  be  the  vitality  of  the  eggs.  Such  eggs 
will  keep  longer  for  hatching  and  will  produce  stronger 
chicks  than  eggs  laid  by  less  vigorous  hens.  The  aver- 
age period  of  incubation  of  eggs  of  several  kinds  is  as 
follows: 

Days 
Fowls  of  medium  and  large-sized  breeds..         21 

Bantams  and  other  small  breeds 19  to  20 

Ducks 28 

Muscovy    duck    35 

Muscovy     duck     crossed     with     Pekin     or 

other    drake    32 

Geese  28 

Turkeys     27  to  29 

Guinea    fowls    28  to  30 

Pheasants     24  to  25 

Peafowls     27  to  29 

Pigeons    17 

Swans     35  to  40 

Ostriches  40  to  42 


94 


INCUBATION 


INCUBATION  95 

The  Best  Sitter.— Cochin,  Orpington,  Plymouth  Rock, 
Rhode  Island  Red,  and  Wyandotte  hens  are  the  best 
sitters.  The  quiet  hen  that  will  sit  contented  on  the  nest 
until  her  work  is  finished  and  will  then  care  for  her 
chicks  properly  is  the  kind  to  be  depended  on  both  for 
raising  utility  fowls  and  fowls  for  exhibition. 

The  most  unsatisfactory  hen  for  hatching  is  the  nervous 
hen  that  fusses  and  fights  all  who  move  about  her;  that 
will  spring  quickly  from  the  nest  when  any  one  ap- 
proaches her,  thus  breaking  her  eggs  and  disturbing 
those  left  in  the  nest.  A  good  motherly  hen  that  will 
rear  two  broods  in  one  season  is  the  kind  to  be  de- 
pended on. 

Testing  Fertility  of  Eggs.— After  eggs  have  been  incu- 
bated for  some  time,  it  is  usually  desirable  that  they 
be  examined  for  fertility.  This  examination  may  be 
best  made  during  the  seventh  day  of  incubation.  The 
work  of  testing  the  eggs  can  be  done  in  daylight.  To 
do  the  work  well,  however,  requires  that  it  be  done 
after  dark  or  in  a  darkened  room.  An  appliance  called 
an  egg  tester  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

Many  kinds  of  egg  testers  are  offered  for  sale.  An 
"excellent  one  is  the  kind  that  has  a  bull's-eye  lens  like 
those  used  for  bicycle  lamps.  A  tester  of  this  kind  is 
shown  in  operation  in  Fig.  3.  The  tester  is  placed  over 
the  flame  of  any  kerosene  oil  lamp,  in  a  room  that  is 
dark.  The  eggs  should  be  placed  against  the  opening 
so  that  the  light  may  shine  through  the  egg;  both  live 
and  dead  germs  may  then  be  clearly  seen. 

Development  of  the  Embryo.— To  one  well  trained  in 
the  testing  of  eggs,  the  first  material  change  will  be 
visible  in  about  48  hr.  after  incubation  begins.  The  head 
and  the  lines  of  the  body  can  be  seen  by  the  trained 
observer.  The  stages  of  development  of  the  embryo  are 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  To  become  expert  in  the  testing  of 
eggs,  one  should  compare  the  successive  steps  in  the 
development  with  the  day  on  which  it  should  occur  as 
recorded  in  this  chart,  which  includes  all  the  phenomena 
from  the  first  to  the  twenty-first  day. 


INCUBATION 


FIG.  4 


INCUBATION 


97 


ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

During  recent  years  there  has  been  a  large  increase 
of  market  poultry,  resulting  from  the  practice  of  arti- 
ficial incubation.  The  incubator  operator  can  control 
production  by  artificial  means,  but  with  hens  a  desire 
to  hatch  cannot  be  hastened.  The  artificial  methods  of 
hatching  and  rearing  chicks  bring  alike  to  the  farmer 
and  to  the  small  grower  the  choice  of  the  day  of  pro- 
duction and  of  the  number  of  chicks  produced. 

The  results  obtained  from  artificial  incubation  depend 
primarily  on  the  vitality  of  the  eggs;  but  the  handling 
of  the  incubator,  surrounding  influences,  and  the  gen- 
eral efficiency  of  the  incubator  itself  are  other  condi- 
tions of  fundamental  importance.  The  vitality  of  eggs 
depends  on  the  constitutional 
vigor  of  the  fowls  that  pro- 
duce them;  superior  vigor 
must  come  through  several 
generations  of  strong  and 
healthy  fowls.  It  follows 
therefore  that,  in  order  to 
have  embryo  chicks  of 
marked  vitality,  eggs  must  be 
used  that  come  from  strong, 
vigorous,  well-bred  fowls. 

The  per  cent,  fertility  is 
an  expression  that  is  fre- 
quently misleading.  More 
than  90%  of  the  eggs 
may  be  fertile  and  yet  no 
living  chicks  may  come  from  WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 
them,  because  the  germ  is  MALE 

so    lacking    in    vitality    that 

it  dies  before  incubation  is  completed.  The  per  cent, 
fertility  is  increased  by  proper  feeding  and  the  vigor 
of  both  male  and  female  is  also  increased,  but  there  is 
a  pronounced  difference  between  fertility  and  vitality. 
The  former  may  exist  to  a  marked  degree  even  though 


98  INCUBATION 

the  vitality  of  the  germs  or  the  egg  be  lacking,  but  the 
latter  obviously  cannot  be  present  without  the  former. 
Chicks  that  are  not  strong  and  of  abundant  vitality 
when  hatched  should  never  be  raised  for  breeders,  but 
such  fowls  may  be  used  for  market  poultry. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  production 
of  fowls  for  exhibition  or  for  beauty  and  the  production 
of  those  fitted  for  egg  yielding  and  for  table  meat. 
Where  exhibition  fowls  are  desired,  the  producing  stock 
must  be  yarded  to  avoid  the  mixing  of  breeds  or 
varieties.  This  is  necessary  only  during  the  breeding 
season.  At  other  times  the  old  and  young  stock  may 
have  free  range.  Where  egg  producers  and  market  poul- 
try are  desired,  it  is  best  to  give  the  breeding  stock  all 
possible  liberty.  It  is  best  to  keep  only  one  variety, 
and  the  flock  should  have  free  range  if  possible. 

The  records  of  artificial  incubation  are  derived  from 
experiments  with  different  makes  of  incubators. 

The  hatch  from  hens  ranged  as  high  as  83.3%  and  as 
low  as  50%,  and  that  of  the  incubator  from  77.1%  to 
32.5%. 

Selection  of  Eggs  for  Incubation.— Eggs  for  hatching 
in  an  incubator  should  all  be  of  one  kind,  size,  and 
color;  for  only  when  eggs  of  such  character  are  incu- 
bated together  can  uniform  hatching  be  secured. 

Eggs  from  Leghorns  and  Brahmas  do  not  hatch  -well 
if  both  are  together  in  the  same  incubator,  for  the  eggs 
of  the  Leghorns  usually  hatch  during  the  twentieth  day, 
and  the  hatching  of  the  Brahma  eggs  may  be  delayed 
to  the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day.  If  eggs  from  Leg- 
horns, Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  Brahmas  are 
all  together  in  the  one  incubator  the  hatch  is  irregular. 
Eggs  but  1  da.  old  hatch  a  day  sooner  than  eggs  that 
are  2  wk.  old.  Leghorn  eggs  placed  in  an  incubator  on 
the  day  they  are  laid  may  hatch  in  480  hr. ;  eggs  of 
Asiatic  fowls  placed  in  the  same  incubator  when  2  wk. 
old  may  hatch  for  516  hr.,  a  difference  in  time  that  makes 
poor  results  inevitable  if  the  eggs  of  both  breeds  are 
incubated  together.  The  eggs  of  ducks  and  of  chickens 


INCUBATION  99 

cannot  be  successfully  hatched  together  in  the  same 
incubator,  nor  do  the  eggs  of  any  two  or  more  kinds 
of  fowls  hatch  well  if  placed  together  in  the  same  incu- 
bator or  under  the  same  hen. 

If  the  eggs  are  of  uniform  size,  the  temperatures  of 
all  are  equal  or  nearly  so;  if  large  and  small  eggs  are 
in  the  same  machine  the  temperature  may  not  be  the 
same  in  all. 

Eggs  with  white  shells  hatch  in  fewer  hours  than  do 
the  dark-shelled  eggs,  for  white  shells  are  thinner  and 
transmit  heat  more  freely  to  the  germ  within.  Under 
the  same  conditions,  eggs  with  white  shells  will  have 
larger  air  cells  than  those  with  heavier  shells. 

Only  smooth  and  well-formed  eggs  should  be  used; 
eggs  with  uneven  surfaces,  bad  form,  rough  shells,  or 
mixed  colors  should  be  discarded,  as  well  as  eggs  that 
are  abnormally  large  or  small. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching.— The  best  hatch  is  obtained 
from  eggs  placed  in  the  incubator  the  same  day  on  which 
they  are  laid.  Eggs  keep  in  prime  condition  for  hatch- 
ing up  to  the  tenth  day;  if  2  wk.  old  they  are  safe  for 
incubation;  but  if  older  than  this  they  seldom  hatch 
well,  although  some  eggs  that  have  been  kept  a  month 
will  hatch.  Eggs  keep  the  best  in  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture of  about  55°  F.  in  an  atmosphere  free  from  oil  and 
other  bad  odors.  The  vitality  of  eggs  that  are  exposed 
for  any  length  of  time  to  a  temperature  below  40°  F.  is 
impaired. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  shifted  at  least  every  other  day 
so  that  the  yolks  will  not  settle  to  one  side,  stick  to  the 
shell,  and  thus  destroy  the  germ.  Preferably,  the  eggs 
should  be  stored  small  end  down,  either  in  a  regular 
packing  crate  or  any  suitable  receptacle. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  injured  if  they  are  washed; 
washing  removes  the  natural  glaze  from  the  shell,  and 
such  eggs  do  not  hatch  well.  Though  it  is  not  advisable 
to  hatch  dirty  eggs,  such  eggs  hatch  better  in  soiled  con- 
djtion  than  they  would  if.  washed. 


100 


INCUBATION 
INCUBATORS 


An  incubator  is  an  apparatus  by  means  of  which  eggs 
may  be  artificially  kept  at  the  proper  temperature  for 
hatching.  Many  different  styles  and  sizes  of  incubators 
are  now  in  use,  some  of  them  being  adapted  for  all  sizes 
of  eggs  from  those  of  the  bantam  to  those  of  an  ostrich. 
Incubators  range  in  size  from  those  the  capacity  of 
which  is  limited  to  a  few  dozen  eggs  to  those  that  are 


FIG.  5 


capable  of  incubating  many  thousand  eggs.  The  ma- 
chines most  commonly  used  have  capacities  that  range 
from  5  to  30  doz.  hen's  eggs  or  a  smaller  number  of  any 
eggs  that  are  larger  than  hen's  eggs. 

Though  many  different  types  of  incubators  are  made, 
\vith  but  few  exceptions  in  outward  appearance  they 
resemble  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

The  essential  parts  of  an  incubator  consist  of  a  heating 
apparatus  that  is  controlled  by  a  regulator,  and  an  egg 


INCUBATTOX  ;,  391 

chamber  that  can  be  held' at  tne*  required '  temperature. 
Incubators  are  also  supplied  with  thermometers  and 
means  of  ventilation. 

In  the  various  incubators  heat  is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  eggs  either  by  diffusion  or  radiation.  In 
diffusion  incubators,  hot  air  is  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  egg  chamber.  In  radiation  incubators,  the  heat  is 
radiated  from  pipes  or  radiators  that  are  heated  either 
by  hot  air  or  by  hot  water.  A  large  part  of  the  incuba- 
tors in  use  are  of  the  diffusion  type,  in  which  the  air  is 
heated  by  an  oil  lamp.  In  these  machines  the  heated 
air  passes  directly  into  the  egg  chamber  and  throughout 
the  interior  of  the  machine.  The  eggs  in  the  tray  are 
thus  surrounded  with  air  at  the  required  temperature. 
Incubators  in  which  the  heat  is  both  radiated  and 
diffused  are  also  used.  The  more  evenly  the  egg  chamber 
is  warmed  the  greater  will  be  the  success  in  hatching. 

The  most  satisfactory  source  of  heat  for  incubators  of 
all  kinds  is  that  obtained  from  oil  lamps.  Some  incuba- 
tors are  heated  by  circulating  hot  water.  Some  incu- 
bators require  particular  care  and  attention,  and  their 
efficiency  depends  on  the  proper  circulation  of  the  water, 
the  distribution  of  the  pipes,  and  the  lasting  qualities 
of  the  entire  heating  system.  Illuminating  gas,  elec- 
tricity, and  alcohol  lamps  are  also  used  to  some  extent 
as  sources  of  heat  for  incubators. 

Incubator  manufacturers  prefer  thermometers  specially 
made  to  suit  each  kind  of  machine.  There  is  usually 
a  reason  for  such  preference,  and  the  thermometer 
recommended  by  the  manufacturers  should  be  favored. 
If  this  instrument  cannot  be  obtained,  the  best  that  is 
made  must  be  selected.  Incubator  thermometers  are 
scaled  from  90°  F.  to  110°  F.,  and  are  marked  low  at 
100°  F.  and  high  at  105°  F.,  and  the  scale  is  crossed  at 
103°  F.  by  an  arrow  or  a  heavy  line.  It  is  thus  easy  to 
make  an  accurate  reading  between  the  low  and  the  high 
marks,  provided  the  thermometer  is  correctly  graduated. 

Before  being  used,  incubator  thermometers  are  tested 
in  the  following  manner:  An  instrument  known  to  be 


102  INCUBATION 

correct  ia  stirred  about  in  warm  water  until  the  degree 
of  heat  is  105°  F.  or  a  little  higher.  Other  thermometers 
are  then  held  in  the  same  hand  with  the  one  known  to 
be  correct  and  all  are  stirred  about  in  the  water  so  that 
the  reading  of  all  may  be  taken  under  like  conditions. 
Any  instruments  that  fail  to  mark  the  temperature  cor- 
rectly are  rejected.  It  is  best  to  test  all  thermometers 
in  use  at  least  once  a  season. 

The  printed  directions  that  come  with  each  incubator, 
giving  instructions  for  its  operation,  also  tell  where 
the  thermometer  is  to  be  placed  in  the  machine,  and  to 
secure  the  best  results  such  directions  should  be  fol- 
lowed to  the  letter.  The  thermometer  is  usually  placed 
in  or  near  the  center  of  the  egg  tray. 

Temperature  and  Moisture.— An  expert  who  has  had 
more  practical  experience  with  the  use  of  incubators 
than  any  other  man  has  said:  "Briefly  stated,  all  that 
is  required  to  hatch  eggs  artificially  is  a  temperature 
of  100.5°  F.  at  the  center  of  the  eggs,  which  is  101°  F.  to 
103°  F.  by  contact;  at  the  same  time,  the  eggs  should 
be  immersed  in  still  air  containing  moisture  of  a  relative 
humidity  of  from  45  to  70  per  cent.,  this  moisture  to  be 
changed  sufficiently  often  to  carry  off  the  waste  gases 
eliminated  by  the  eggs.  Any  excess  of  ventilation  be- 
yond this  is  deleterious." 

Professor  Lamson,  of  the  Connecticut  State  Agricul- 
tural College,  has  said  that  the  chief  factors  in  the  arti- 
ficial incubation  of  good  fertile  eggs  are  "temperature, 
turning  the  eggs,  moisture,  and  ventilation."  The  mean- 
ing of  this  would  be  that  when  eggs  are  hatched  in  the 
incubator,  the  temperature  as  usually  taken  by  a  ther- 
mometer should  range  from  101°  F.  to  103°  F.  and  that 
when  a  thermometer  is  used  that  would  indicate  the 
temperature  at  the  center  of  the  egg  the  temperature  of 
that  position  should  be  100.5°  F.  The  thermometer  used 
for  taking  this  particular  test  is  known  as  the  "In-Ova 
Thermometer."  This  is  a  thermometer  the  bulb  of  which 
is  inside  a  celluloid  egg,  the  bulb  resting  in  the  center 
of  the  egg.  When  such  a  thermometer  is  used  it  indi- 


INCUBATION  103 

cates  the  temperature  at  the  center  of  the  egg,  which 
should  be  100.5°  F.  When  the  ordinary  or  regular  type 
of  thermometer  is  used,  and  when  the  bulb  rests  at  or 
near  the  upper  outside  of  the  egg,  the  temperature  should 
not  go  below  101°  F.  and  not  much  above  103°  F. 

The  statement  made  that  the  atmosphere  should  be 
changed  sufficiently  often  to  carry  off  the  waste  gases 
refers  to  proper  ventilation.  In  writing  of  this,  Pro- 
fessor Lamson  says  that  by  the  use  of  specially  con- 
structed apparatus  it  was  shown  that  the  ventilation 
required  in  the  incubator  to  secure  the  best  results  in 
living  chicks  consisted  in  a  change  of  5  cu.  ft.  per  hr. 
for  each  50  eggs.  Where  the  change  of  air  exceeded 
10  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  for  each  50  eggs,  the  hatch  began  to 
run  down,  and  when  the  air  change  was  reduced  to  y\  cu. 
ft.  per  hr.,  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  chicks  were 
hatched. 

As  a  result  of  many  experiments,  it  has  been  shown 
that  hen-hatched  chicks  weigh  1.258  oz. ;  that  incubator- 
hatched  chicks  with  maximum  moisture  weigh  1.184  oz. ; 
that  chicks  hatched  in  incubators  with  a  medium  amount 
of  moisture  weigh  1.159  oz.;  and  that  chicks  hatched  in 
non-moisture  machines  weigh  1.072  oz.  It  has  also  been 
shown  that  the  minimum  moisture  in  the  incubator  might 
be  45%,  while  the  maximum  might  be  70%. 

The  weight  of  these  chicks  seems  to  indicate  that  to 
have  the  greatest  possible  vigor  in  chicks  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  moisture  is  required  during  incubation  than  is 
present  in  the  average  incubator.  For  these  reasons, 
considerable  effort  has  been  made  to  find  some  means  of 
introducing  moisture  into  machines  during  the  period  of 
incubation.  Among  the  devices  used  are  pans  of  water 
or  pans  of  sand  moistened  with  water  and  placed  under 
the  egg  tray.  Another  way  is  by  sprinkling  the  eggs 
with  water  morning  and  evening  during  incubation  as 
clothes  are  sprinkled  with  the  hand  or  by  means  of 
sprays  such  as  are  used  by  druggists  or  florists. 

An  excellent  method  of  applying  moisture  is  to  have 
pads  made  of  burlap  or  felt,  and  cut  to  fit  under  the 


104  INCUBATION 

egg  tray.  These  pads  are  saturated  with  hot  water, 
v,  rung  out  almost  dry,  and  then  placed  under  the  egg 
tray.  Pieces  of  outing  cloth  or  cotton  flannel  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  cover  the  top  of  all  eggs  may  be  soaked 
in  hot  water,  wrung  out  until  they  are  almost  dry, 
placed  on  top  of  the  eggs,  and  left  there.  This  is  an 
excellent  method  of  providing  moisture  for  the  eggs 
from  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth  day. 

The  rules  sent  out  with  each  incubator  should  always 
be  strictly  followed;  yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  in 
some  latitudes  the  air  is  much  drier  than  in  others. 
Sometimes,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  moisture, 
a  need  indicated  by  the  size  of  the  air  cell.  If  this  cell 
is  larger  than  normal,  moisture  must  be  supplied  and  the 
rate  of  air  change  must  be  reduced.  The  water  pan,  sand 
tray,  or  the  moistened  felt,  or  the  wet  outing  flannel 
should  be  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  supply  moisture. 

Turning  and  Cooling.— It  is  necessary  that  the  eggs  in 
the  incubator  tray  should  be  turned  and  cooled  at  reg- 
ular intervals.  Turning  every  12  hr.  is  practiced  by 
some;  turning  once  in  24  hr.  when  the  eggs  are  cooled 
is  practiced  by  others.  Some  experts  insist  that  eggs 
will  hatch  better  if  turned  and  cooled  more  frequently. 
They  advise  that  the  trays  of  eggs  be  taken  from  the 
machine  and  cooled  for  a  short  time,  three  or  four  times 
a  day,  and  each  time  the  eggs  are  turned  they  will  be 
cooled  slightly.  This  practice  has  not  yet  been  tested 
sufficiently  to  warrant  its  acceptance;  however,  it  might 
be  experimented  with  to  advantage. 

Some  operators  of  considerable  experience  insist  that 
the  cooling  of  eggs  is  useless.  The  common  practice  is 
to  cool  and  turn  the  eggs  twice  a  day,  never  turning 
them  over  entirely,  but  just  moving  them  slightly  in 
the  egg  tray  so  that  each  egg  will  be  moved  a  little. 
When  the  weather  is  cool,  the  eggs  need  not  be  kept 
out  of  the  egg  chamber  longer  than  4  or  5  min.;  when 
the  weather  is  warm  and  the  incubator  room  is  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  F.  or  more,  the  eggs  should  be  cooled 
fully  30  min. 


INCUBATION  105 

Chicks  Dead  in  the  Shell.— The  prevailing  question  as 
to  artificial  incubation  is,  "Why  do  chicks  die  in  the 
shell?"  In  answer  to  this,  one  of  the  most  expert  in 
incubating  says:  "The  best  of  incubators  add  nothing 
to  the  vitality  of  the  developed  embryo.  When  the 
vitality  of  the  embryo  is  impaired  or  the  eggs  are  old, 
the  hen  will  not  hatch  a  higher  percentage  than  any 
incubator  ever  constructed,  yet  to  find  dead  chicks  in 
the  shell  is  a  very  common  experience,  even  when  the 
most  faithful  hens  are  employed."  This  would  indicate 
that  we  must  look  beyond  the  hatching  machine  for  the 
cause  of  the  dead  chicks  in  the  shell.  The  causes  for 
chicks  dying  in  the  shell  are  several.  The  most  prev- 
alent of  all  is  inexperience  in  the  handling  of  the 
incubator;  another  is  lack  of  vitality  in  the  eggs.  This, 
being  due  to  low  vitality  in  the  hen  that  laid  the  eggs, 
can  be  remedied  only  through  several  years  of  careful 
breeding  of  the  parent  stock  for  greater  vigor. 

Another  writer  has  said  that  a  successful  hatch  begins 
with  the  fowls  that  lay  the  eggs.  Immature  pullets  will 
not  furnish  eggs  desirable  for  incubation.  The  best  eggs 
for  this  purpose  will  be  laid  by  hens  in  their  second  year 
that  have  great  vigor  and  have  been  fed  and  cared  for 
with  the  object  of  procuring  eggs  for  hatching.  There 
will  be  no  dead  chicks  in  the  shell  when  the  hens  laying 
the  eggs  are  full  of  vitality  and  when  the  person  that 
handles  the  incubator  has  had  sufficient  experience  to 
act  quickly  and  properly  as  each  emergency  comes. 

Rules  for  Hatching.— The  manufacturers  of  incubators 
assume  that  the  treatment  of  eggs  during  incubation  is 
an  exact  science,  and  that  the  directions  that  they  have 
formulated  are  faultless.  One  of  the  largest  manufac- 
turers of  incubators  has  printed  a  bulletin  on  the  han- 
dling of  incubators  to  get  the  best  results.  In  this 
bulletin  he  says  that  the  eggs  should  be  turned  every 
12  hr.  beginning  on  the  third  day  and  ending  on  the 
night  of  the  eighteenth  day.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
keep  on  changing  the  position  of  the  trays  as  usual  until 
the  eggs  begin  to  pip.  Never  turn  the  eggs  with  oily 


106  INCUBATION 

hands  or  with  hands  that  have  any  substance  on  them 
which  might  adhere  to  the  shells. 

Test  the  eggs  on  the  sixth  and  the  seventeenth  days, 
but  do  not  turn  or  cool  them  while  testing  them.  Cool- 
ing and  ventilating  should  be  done  according  to  the 
instructions  given  in  the  book  of  directions  that  accom- 
panies each  machine.  Cooling  helps  to  soften  eggs. 

Be  sure  that  the  thermometer  is  accurate.  If  your 
machine  is  supplied  with  a  suspended  thermometer,  see 
that  the  bulb  is  just  2  in.  above  the  wire  of  the  egg 
tray.  Do  not  allow  the  thermometer  to  go  above  103°  F., 
except  when  the  chicks  are  coming  out  lively,  at  which 
time  it  may  go  as  high  as  105°  F.  without  injury. 

Do  not  open  the  door  of  the  incubator  after  the  eggs 
begin  to  pip.  Close  the  ventilator  when  the  chicks  begin 
to  come  out  and  keep  it  closed  until  the  hatch  is  com- 
pleted, unless  the  hatch  is  very  large  and  the  chicks 
are  crowded,  in  which  case  the  ventilators  may  be 
opened  when  the  hatch  is  two-thirds  off.  Open  the  venti- 
lator and  wedge  the  door  slightly  ajar  after  the  hatch 
is  over  and  the  trays  containing  the  shells  have  been 
removed.  Allow  the  chicks  to  remain  in  the  incubator 
for  from  24  to  36  hr.  Do  not  feed  or  water  the  chicks 
while  they  are  in  the  incubator. 

FACTORS  THAT  INFLUENCE  SUCCESS  IN 
INCUBATION 

The  factor  of  prime  importance  in  incubation  is  the 
vitality  of  the  eggs,  and  this  depends  on  the  vitality  of 
the  fowls  that  produce  them. 

Eggs  for  hatching  should  all  be  of  one  kind,  size,  and* 
color. 

Only  smooth  and  well-formed  eggs  should  be  used  for 
hatching.  Eggs  of  bad  form  or  with  rough  shells  should 
be  discarded. 

The  best  eggs  for  hatching  are  those  that  are  placed 
in  an  incubator  on  the  day  they  are  laid;  eggs  are  in 
good  condition  for  hatching  up  to  10  da.  after  they  are 
laid;  after  they  are  2  wk,  old  they  are  unreliable. 


INCUBATION  107 

Clean  eggs  are  the  best,  but  eggs  should  not  be  washed. 
Washed  eggs  do  not  hatch  well. 

The  incubator  must  be  set  up  perfectly  level  and  kept 
so  for  the  best  results. 

The  directions  given  by  the  manufacturers  for  the 
operation  of  their  machines  must  be  closely  followed. 

The  thermometers  recommended  by  the  manufacturers 
of  the  incubators  should  be  used,  and  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  machine  exactly  where  directed. 

Incubator  eggs  should  not  be  handled  with  hands  soiled 
by  dirt  or  oil.  Oil  will  kill  the  germ  within  the  egg. 

Avoid  jars  of  the  incubator  while  hatching.  This 
ruptures  the  egg  and  destroys  the  embryo. 

The  incubator  room  should  be  kept  free  of  drafts  and 
bad  odors  of  all  kinds. 

Keep  the  flues  of  the  incubator  clean  and  free  from 
soot.  A  coating  of  soot  prevents  the  proper  amount  of 
heat  from  reaching  the  egg  chamber. 

Keep  the  lamps  clean  and  free  from  oil.  Oil  odors 
affect  the  eggs,  and  may  even  destroy  the  embryos. 

When  the  eggs  are  first  placed  in  the  incubator,  they 
should  be  warmed  gradually.  If  they  are  heated  too 
fast  the  germs  will  be  destroyed. 

Do  not  neglect  to  turn  and  air  the  eggs  in  an  in- 
cubator. 

When  the  eggs  are  taken  out  of  an  incubator  to  air, 
the  door  should  be  closed  so  that  the  egg  chamber  will 
not  cool  off.  The  eggs  should  not  be  kept  out  of  the 
chamber  until  they  become  chilled.  This  kills  the 
embryos. 

Be  sure  to  have  the  brooders  prepared  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  chicks  when  they  are  ready  to  be  taken 
from  the  incubator. 

When  the  incubator  is  not  in  use,  keep  it  in  a  place 
where  it  will  not  become  infested  with  vermin.  When  it 
is  again  put  in  use,  it  should  be  examined,  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  run  for  several  days  before  the  eggs  are 
placed  in  it. 


108 


BROODING  OF  CHICKS 


BROODING  OF  CHICKS 


NATURAL   BROODING 

The  brood  coop  that  will  house  three  or  four  hens  and 
their    broods    is    quite    convenient    for    natural    brooding. 


FIG.  1 

A  coop  for  two  hens  and  their  chicks  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
Another  coop  well  suited  for  wet,  cold,  or  stormy  weather 
is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  After  the  chicks  are  well  dried  off, 


FIG.  2 


BROODING  OF  CHICKS  109 

and  have  been  in  the  nest  with  the  mother  hen  for  at 
least  12  hr.,  the  hen  and  the  brood,  or  two  or  more  hens 
and  their  broods  can  be  removed  to  the  brood  coops. 
Three  or  four  hens  that  are  remarkably  quiet  will  brood 
their  chicks  in  one  large  open  coop.  If  they  are  quarrel- 
some, they  should  be  placed  with  their  broods  in  sepa- 
rate coops. 

The  chief  factors  of  caring  for  the  mother  hen  and  her 
chicks  are  cleanliness  inside  of  and  about  the  coop. 
The  coops  should  be  placed  where  the  chicks  can  run 
out  on  the  ground,  and  where  they  can  have  a  dry  spot 
under  foot  when  the  ground  is  damp.  They  should 
always  be  sheltered  from  wet  and  rain  until  they  are 
2  or  3  wk.  old. 


ARTIFICIAL   BROODING 

Chicks  that  are  .hatched  from  eggs  put  in  the  incubator 
on  Monday  evening  do  not  need  to  be  removed  until 
Wednesday  morning  of  the  third  week  thereafter.  This 
leaves  the  chicks  in  the  incubator  two  nights  and  one  day 
after  they  should  be  hatched.  If  from  any  cause  the 
hatch  is  completed  12  or  more  hours  ahead  of  time,  the 
chicks  may  be  removed  an  equal  number  of  hours  earlier. 
Chicks  that  are  hatched  on  Monday  need  not  be  fed 
until  Wednesday;  they  may,  however,  if  removed  from 
the  incubator,  be  fed  12  or  15  hr.  earlier  than  this. 
When  the  chicks  are  removed  from  the  incubator  to  the 
hover  or  brooder,  they  should  be  protected  from  the  cool 
or  cold  air  by  being  covered  with  woolen  cloths  that 
have  been  warmed  for  the  purpose. 

Chicks  in  the  Brooder.— From  50  to  100  chicks  may  be 
placed  under  each  hover,  according  to  the  kind  of  hover 
cr  brooder  used.  The  sizes  of  the  brooders  vary  from 
a  50-chick  size  to  a  hover  that  will  care  for  500  or  more. 
The  most  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  through 
the  use  of  hovers  that  will  care  for  from  50  to  100  chicks. 
Considerable  experience  and  natural  ability  are  neces- 
sary to  succeed  with  brooders  and  hovers  of  larger  size. 


110  BROODING  OF  CHICKS 

Management  of  Hover.— Each  separate  kind  of  brooding 
appliance  must  be  cared  for  according  to  its  needs.  The 
average  heat  required  beneath  the  hover  is  from  80°  F. 
to  95°  F.  These  differences  in  temperature  are  necessary, 
not  because  the  floor  of  the  nursery  needs  to  be  any 
warmer  or  any  cooler  in  one  kind  than  in  another,  but 
because  the  placing  of  the  thermometer  is  not  alike  in 
all  of  them.  Each  manufacturer  recommends  a  heat 
basis  suited  to  the  placing  of  the  thermometer  in  that 
brooding  system.  The  chicks  on  the  floor  should  be  in  a 
temperature  ranging  from  85°  F.  to  92°  F.  When  the 
chicks  are  first  placed  in  the  hover,  the  temperature 
should  be  about  92°  F. ;  the  presence  of  the  chicks 
beneath  the  hover  will  raise  the  temperature  to  at  least 
95°  F.  After  the  chicks  have  been  for  3  or  4  da.  under 
the  hover,  the  temperature  can  be  gradually  reduced. 
In  winter  it  may  be  dropped  to  90°  F.  and  kept  there 
until  the  chicks  are  fully  2  wk.  old  or  more,  at  which 
time  1°  or  2°  less  will  answer. 

Always  have  sufficient  heat  under  the  nursery  to 
satisfy  the  chicks  and  keep  them  contented.  The  one 
sure  evidence  of  contentment  of  the  chicks  under  the 
hover  is  the  gentle  peep  of  satisfaction  which  they  give 
when  properly  brooded.  Whenever  there  is  not  sufficient 
heat  they  will  sound  a  cry  of  alarm  or  distress  which 
every  poultryman  should  learn.  This  call  should  be 
answered  immediately  and  the  cause  of  the  cry  dis- 
covered and  remedied  at  once. 

Some  authorities  say  that  the  temperature  should  regis- 
ter 95°  F.,  running  up  fully  to  100°  F.  when  the  chicks 
are  placed  in  the  brooder,  and  that  this  temperature 
should  be  maintained  for  the  first  week,  after  which  it 
may  be  gradually  reduced.  This  temperature  may 
answer  very  well  when  the  weather  is  cold,  but  in  warm 
weather  it  is  too  high.  The  temperature  should  be  kept 
as  low  as  practicable,  depending  on  the  time  of  year 
and  the  age  of  the  chicks.  One  safe  rule  is  that  the 
chicks  should  always  have  heat  enough  to  obviate  the 
danger  of  becoming  chilled. 


BROODING  OF  CHICKS 


111 


No  matter  where  the  hover  may  be  placed,  whether  in 
a  coop  made  for  the  purpose,  or  in  a  box,  a  small  house, 
or  an  outbuilding,  the  floor  should  be  covered  with  dry 
sand  over  which  should  be  scattered  a  coating  of  2  or 
3  in.  of  cut  straw,  hay,  alfalfa,  or  chaff  of  some  kind. 
There  should  be  sufficient  of  this  on  the  floor  to  protect 
the  chicks  from  the  cold  during  severe  weather,  and 
enough  of  it  so  that  the  curtain  of  the  hover  will  rest 


FIG.  3 

on  it.    Cleanliness,  care,  and  proper,  feeding  are  always 
necessary  for  success  in  the  growing  of  chicks. 

A  brooding  coop  well  suited  for  one  or  two  hovers  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  coop  was  made  from  two  piano 
boxes  placed  together,  the  roof  being  covered  with  ordi- 
nary roofing  paper.  There  are  two  doors  in  front;  one 
is  a  frame  door  covered  with  wire  cloth,  the  other  a 
glass  door,  which  is  kept  open  when  the  weather  is 
warm  and  the  sun  shines  bright;  but  on  very  cold  days 
and  at  night  it  should  be  closed.  A  brood  coop  of  this 
kind  can  be  safely  used  during  the  winter  months.  It 


112  BROODING  OF  CHICKS 

is  not  unusual  to  have  one  or  two  hovers  each  for  fifty 
or  a  hundred  chicks  running  inside  of  such  a  coop  when 
the  thermometer  is  nearly  zero. 


POINTS  IN  SUCCESSFUL  BROODING 

Brood  coops  should  be  perfectly  sanitary  and  free  from 
vermin,  and  should  be  painted  with  liquid  insecticide 
at  least  a  week  before  they  are  occupied.  They  should 
also  be  sprayed  with  insecticide  every  2  wk.  while  in 
use,  and  the  floors  must  be  cleaned  frequently. 

Brood  coops  should  be  ready  a  day  in  advance  of  the 
time  when  the  chicks  are  to  be  placed  in  them,  and  the 
temperature  should  be  about  90°.  This  temperature 
should  be  maintained  for  7  da.,  after  which  it  should 
be  gradually  reduced  to  80°. 

If  newly  hatched  chicks  become  chilled  they  will  be 
seriously  injured,  and  if  they  are  overheated  they  will 
lose  vitality.  The  proper  heat  must  be  maintained  with 
regularity. 

The  directions  given  by  the  manufacturers  for  the 
operation  of  brooders  should  be  strictly  followed,  and 
the  particular  kind  of  thermometer  recommended  should 
be  used.  Temperature  readings  are  taken  at  different 
heights,  according  to  the  construction  of  the  brooder, 
and  if  the  thermometers  used  are  too  long  or  too  short 
the  temperature  readings  will  be  misleading. 

Overcrowding  in  brooders  should  be  avoided.  When 
a  brooder  is  overcrowded  the  air  becomes  impure,  and 
this  will  result  in  a  loss  of  vitality. 

As  soon  as  chicks  are  able  they  should  be  allowed  to 
run  in  the  open,  but  they  should  be  protected  from 
predatory  animals  by  covered  runways. 

During  inclement  weather,  chicks  should  be  induced  to 
take  exercise  by  scattering  small  grains  in  the  litter. 

After  each  meal,  unconsumed  food  should  be  removed 
from  the  floor  of  the  brooder.  If  it  is  left  to  be  trampled 
over  and  becomes  sour,  it  will  cause  bowel  troubles. 


BROODING  OF  CHICKS  113 

Chicks  that  contract  ailments  of  any  kind  should  be 
isolated  immediately. 

A  critical  stage  in  the  life  of  chicks  is  when  they  are 
feathering,  and  at  this  time  they  should  be  supplied 
with  an  abundance  of  nitrogenous  foods. 


MAMMOTH  INCUBATORS  AND 
BROODERS 

The  Mammoth  system  of  incubating  and  brooding  has 
been  so  well  developed  that  it  can  now  be  used  with 
perfect  safety.  Incubators  are  built  in  sections  and  have 
a  capacity  of  from  three  thousand  to  many  thousand 
eggs.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  one  Mammoth  machine 
containing  15,000  eggs  in  operation.  These  incubators 
are  heated  by  self-regulating  coal-burning  furnaces,  the 
heat  from  which  is  distributed  by  means  of  hot  water 
that  passes  through  a  system  of  pipes  so  adjusted  as  to 
keep  a  continuous  flow,  or  circulation,  from  the  furnace, 
through  the  pipes,  and  back  to  the  furnace  again.  The 
heat  in  the  egg  chamber  is  regulated  through  the  raising 
and  lowering  of  the  egg  trays  and  by  an  automatic  or 
thermostatic  regulator.  In  writing  of  this  system,  one 
familiar  with  it  says  that  the  simplicity,  economy, 
and  safety  of  this  type  of  heater  is  now  universally 
recognized. 

A  system  of  hot-water  heating  is  used  with  the  Mam- 
moth brooder.  This  system  can  be  used  with  either  a 
single-  or  a  double-row  brooding  house.  The  system  for 
heating  is  much  the  same  as  has  always  been  used  in 
hot-water  brooding  systems.  The  one  great  difference 
is  that  by  using  the  self-regulating  coal-burning  furnace 
better  service  can  be  obtained  at  less  cost  than  when 
boilers  are  used.  Complete  information  regarding  this 
system  of  incubating  and  brooding  can  best  be  obtained 
from  those  who  manufacture  the  apparatus. 


114  EGGS 


EGGS 

Food  Value  of  Eggs.— Eggs  are  a  cheap  food.  They  are 
less  costly  than  most  meats.  One  dozen  eggs  will  better 
serve  a  family  of  six  than  \l/2  Ib.  of  meat.  The  average 
value  of  these  is  about  equal. 

Composition  of  Eggs.— About  11%  of  hens'  eggs  consist 
of  shell,  32%  of  yolk,  and  57%  of  white.  The  white  and 
yolk  are  made  up  of  72%  of  water.  The  table  shown  on 
pages  116  and  117,  adapted  frcm  a  bulletin  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the  composition 
and  fuel  value  of  eggs  of  the  common  domestic  poultry, 
and,  for  purpose  of  comparison,  the  composition  and  fuel 
value  of  some  of  the  more  common  foods  other  than  these. 

Uses  of  Eggs. — In  addition  to  their  use  as  food,  eggs 
are  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  other  purposes.  The 
white  of  an  egg  is  a  remedy  for  burns,  and  if  taken  in 
time  it  is  an  effective  antidote  for  poisoning  by  corrosive 
sublimate.  Food  or  bones  lodged  in  the  throat  can  some- 
times be  dislodged  by  swallowing  a  raw  egg.  The  oil 
extracted  from  the  yolk  has  healing  properties,  and  the 
inner  lining  or  membrane  of  the  shell  can  be  used  as  an 
adhesive  plaster.  Eggshells,  on  account  of  the  purity 
of  the  carbonate  lime  of  which  they  are  largely  com- 
posed, are  used  in  compounding  medicine  and  for  several 
other  purposes. 

There  is  a  limited  demand  for  rotten  eggs  for  the 
finishing  of  some  kinds  of  leather.  They  may  be  used 
as  fertilizer,  and  in  many  instances  they  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  calico.  The  supply,  however,  is 
much  greater  than  the  demand,  and  such  eggs  bring  but 
a  few  cents  a  dozen.  Often  the  price  paid  for  them 
is  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  transportation,  which 
in  most  cases  is  paid  by  the  shipper. 

Color  of  Eggshells. — Fowls  of  European  origin  lay 
white-shelled  eggs;  those  of  Asiatic  origin  lay  dark- 
shelled  eggs,  as  a  rule.  The  eggs  of  different  varieties 


EGGS  115 

of  the  same  breed  may  differ  slightly  in  color.  For 
example,  the  eggs  of  dark-plumaged  fowls  have  darker- 
colored  shells  than  those  of  the  lighter-plumaged  fowls. 

A  cross  between  two  breeds,  one  of  which  lays  brown- 
shelled  eggs  and  the  other  white-shelled  eggs,  results  in 
fowls  that  lay  eggs  of  a  color  intermediate  between  the 
brown  and  the  white.  There  is  also  considerable  vari- 
ation in  the  color  of  eggs  from  different  hens  of  the 
same  variety.  The  color  of  the  shell  is  more  pronounced 
in  the  eggs  first  laid  than  in  those  laid  later  in  the 
season.  All  fowls  having  the  least  amount  of  Asiatic  • 
blood  show  this  influence  in  the  tinted  shells.  The  more 
of  Asiatic  blood  a  fowl  has  in  its  veins  the  darker  will 
be  the  color  of  the  eggshell.  The  eggs  with  the  darkest 
color  of  shell  are  laid  by  the  Langshans. 

The  New  York  market  pays  the  highest  prices  for 
white-shelled  eggs,  and  the  Boston  market  pays  the  high- 
est prices  for  brown-shelled  eggs.  In  other  markets  the 
matter  of  color  of  shell  is  one  of  small  importance. 

The  color  of  shell  produced  by  the  most  popular  egg- 
producing  breeds  is  given  in  the  following  list: 

Brown  Shells  White  Shells 

Brahmas  Anconas 

Cochins  Adalusians 

Dorkings  Crevecoeurs 

Dominiques  Campines 

Faverolles  Games   (some  have  a  tint) 

Indian  Games  Hamburgs 

Javas  Houdans 

Langshans  Leghorns 

Orpingtons  La   Fleche 

Plymouth   Rocks  Minorcas 

Rhode  Island   Reds  Polish 

Wyandottes  Redcaps 
Spanish 

Weight  of  Eggs.— Marketable  eggs  should  weigh  not 
less  than  2  oz.  each.  At  this  weight,  a  crate  of  30  doz. 
eggs  will  weigh  45  lb.,  exclusive  of  the  crate,  and 
such  eggs  will  bring  much  better  prices  in  the  market 
than  eggs  of  smaller  size.  Eggs  much  larger  than  2  oz. 


116 


EGGS 


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117 


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US  EGGS 

are  not  profitable  to  sell,  because  they  bring  very  little, 
if  any,  higher  price  in  the  general  market,  and  hens  do 
not  lay  so  many.  For  a  special  market,  however,  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  get  a  premium  on  eggs  that 
average  about  2l/2  oz. 

The  weight  of  eggs  depend  to  a  large  extent  on  the 
breed  of  fowls  that  lay  them  and  also  on  the  peculi- 
arities of  individual  fowls.  The  following,  however, 
gives  the  average  weight  of  various  eggs: 

Eggs  Ounces 

8  hen's  eggs,  average   16 

11  guinea  eggs  16 

1  duck  egg  3 

1  turkey  egg  4 

1  goose  egg   6  to  7 

Washing  of  Eggs.— Eggs  that  are  so  badly  soiled  as 
to  need  washing  to  fit  them  for  market  may  be  cleaned 
with  a  solution  made  up  of  1  oz.  of  ammonia  to  2  qt.  of 
water.  Soiled  eggs  may  also  be  washed  in  warm  water 
and  rubbed  dry  with  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  or  flannel. 
Deep  stains  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  dry,  coarse 
salt.  When  cleaned  in  this  way  they  should  be  rinsed 
in  lukewarm  water.  Stained  eggs  are  sometimes  cleaned 
in  lukewarm  water  that  contain  .a  small  quantity  of  soap. 

After  soiled  eggs  have  been  cleaned  their  appearance 
is  improved  by  rubbing  them  with  a  cloth  that  has  been 
moistened  with  a  solution  made  up  of  4  oz.  of  salt  to 
1  pt.  of  vinegar;  this  treatment,  however,  is  not  neces- 
sary for  eggs  that  have  been  washed  in  a  solution  con- 
taining ammonia. 

Percentage  of  Loss  of  Total  Egg  Crop.— According  to 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  about  17% 
of  the  total  egg  crop  of  the  country  is  lost,  because  of 
improper  handling,  or  because  of  unsanitary  conditions 
where  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  following  table  shows  the 
percentage  of  loss  of  the  total  egg  crop  due  to  various 
causes: 


EGGS  119 

PERCENTAGE  LOSS  OF  TOTAL  EGG  CROP 


Class 

Per  Cent. 

Dirtv  eggs  

2 
2 
5 

5  . 
2* 

Broken  eggs 

Chick  development. 

Shrunken  or  held  eg 
Rotten  eggs  

Ejs  

Moldy  and  bad-flavc 

)red  eggs      

Total  

17 

i 

Relation  of  Weight  of  Eggs  to  Egg  Production.— As  a 

general    rule,   the   larger   the   number   of   eggs   laid   by   a 

RELATION  OF  WEIGHT  OF  EGGS  TO  EGG 
PRODUCTION 


Variety 

Number 
of 
Hens 

Number 
of.  Eggs 
Laid 

Weight 
per 
Dozen 
Ounces 

Average 
Number 
of 
Eggs 

Andalusian 

72 

11  883 

2685 

162  26 

Single-Comb  Black  Mi- 
norca                        . 

156 

23  910 

26  72 

146  85 

Langshan  

108 

17  766 

26  03 

164  50 

White  Leghorn  

984 

173,939 

26  00 

176  75 

Ancona  

42 

5  883 

25  94 

14000 

Black  Orpington 

954 

162  623 

25  61 

170  45 

Buff  Orpington  
Buff  Wyandotte 

234 
66 

35,199 
10  479 

25.25 
24  71 

150.42 
157  85 

Silver  Wyandotte  
Brown  Leghorn  
White  Wyandotte  
Golden  Wyandotte  
Rose-Comb  White  Leg- 
horn   

834 
180 
90 
108 

66 

139,694 
32,593 
14,066 
16,902 

11  578 

24.50 
24.47 
24.45 
24.38 

24  31 

167.49 
181.08 
156.25 
156.50 

173  90 

Black  Hamburg  
Rose-Comb  Brown  Leg- 
horn   

30 

72 

5,554 
13  155 

24.19 

°2  74 

185.00 
182  70 

Total,  all  varieties  

4,362 

732,082 

25.28 

167.50 

120  EGGS 

fowl,  the  lighter  in  weight  the  eggs  will  average.  This 
is  shown  in  the  table  on  page  119,  which  is  a  summary 
of  the  egg  record  of  4,362  hens  of  fifteen  different 
varieties  that  laid  a  total  of  732,082  eggs,  the  records  of 
the  different  lots  of  fowls  being  taken  over  a  period  of 
5  yr.  In  the  table,  the  fowls  are  arranged  with  those 
laying  the  heaviest  eggs  per  doz.  at  the  top  and  those 
laying  the  lighter  eggs  coming  in  their  proper  order. 
The  Black  Hamburgs  and  the  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leg- 
horns that  produced  the  two  highest  average  egg  records 
produced  the  lightest-weight  eggs,  and  though  the  results 
obtained  are  not  all  exactly  in  accordance  with  this 
statement,  a  careful  inspection  of  the  table  will  show 
that  on  an  average  hens  with  high  egg  records  produced 
light-weight  eggs,  and  that  the  hens  with  the  lowest  egg 
records  produced  somewhat  heavier  eggs.  Since  little 
attention  is  paid  in  the  market  to  the  weight  of  eggs,  it 
is  obvious  that  the  best  egg  producers  are  the  most 
profitable. 

Relation  of  Egg  Production  to  Season.— In  spite  of  the 
many  assertions  that  hens  lay  more  prolifically  at  one 
time  of  the  year  than  at  another,  an  inspection  of  the 
egg  records  of  a  large  number  of  fowls  fails  to  show 
any  uniformity  in  regard  to  this  point,  but  rather  tends 
to  indicate  that  egg  production  is  more  a  matter  of 
individuality  than  of  season.  The  egg  records  given  in 
the  table  on  page  122  have  been  taken  from  laying 
hens  in  America,  England,  and  Australia.  The  records 
of  some  exceptionally  high  egg  producers  have  been 
selected  and  also  the  average  production  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  fowls  where  it  was  possible  to  obtain  authentic 
records  of  this  character.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  indi- 
vidual fowls  that  make  high  egg  records  lay  consistently 
throughout  almost  every  month  in  the  year,  and  that 
the  only  time  when  they  fall  off  in  egg  production  is 
during  the  molting  period  or  when  they  are  broody. 

The  single  hens  that  do  not  make  such  high  egg 
records  usually  lay  very  well  for  certain  months  in 
the  year,  but  are  unable  to  stand  the  strain  of  heavy 


EGGS 


121 


egg    laying    and    fail,    sometimes    almost    completely,    in 
other  months. 

When  the  average  egg  production  of  a  large  number 
of  fowls  is  taken,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  certain 
similarity  between  their  rates  of  monthly  production,  but 
if  the  record  of  the  80  White  Leghorn  hens  in  America 
is  compared  with  that  of  the  28  American  Wyandottes 
and  the  6,771  hens  of  assorted  varieties  in  America,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  egg  production  in  the  cold  months 
was  fully  as  large  as  in  the  spring  months,  and  that  the 
production  declined  only  in  the  fall  when  the  fowls  were 
molting.  Some  hens  that  are 
prolific  egg  producers  in 
their  first  year  prove  very 
unsatisfactory  in  their  sub- 
sequent years,  as  for  in- 
stance, the  Australian  Silver 
Wyandotte  shown  in  the 
table.  To  be  sure  that  no 
such  hens  are  selected  for 
breeders,  it  is  necessary 
that  careful  egg  records  be 
kept. 

In  all  localities  the  fewest 
eggs  are  produced  during 
the  season  of  molt  and  the 
period  immediately  following 
that  season.  In  the  United  States,  the  molt  occurs  during 
the  months  that  intervene  between  July  and  Jan.  Natur- 
ally, eggs  will  sell  for  the  highest  prices  at  this  time. 
Hens  should  be  encouraged  to  lay  during  these  months. 
The  greater  profit  will  be  made  when  a  prolific  yield 
of  eggs  during  the  winter  months  has  been  secured. 

Pullets  that  are  hatched  in  the  early  spring  lay  at  an 
earliei  age  than  do  late-hatched  pullets.  March-hatched 
pullets  frequently  lay  in  July,  while  those  hatched  in 
July  seldom  lay  before  the  following  March. 


BLACK  ORPINGTON 


122 

fc 


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EGGS 

S3   S      N-S 


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^O      OCO      TH<O      N 
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COTH      NCO      rt*Tj<      O 
NN      NTH       NTH      N 


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COC5bjj  Orfj      O       CO  OO  OCO      b»O      COCO      N 


»ON      NCO      TH 


NN  NTH 


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' 


EGGS  123 

STANDARDS  FOR  EGGS 

Eggs  are  graded  in  many  ways.  The  number  of  grades 
varies  in  different  markets.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  eggs  are  graded  according  to  their  size,  shape,  color 
of  shell,  finish  of  shell,  and  general  condition. 

The  rules  for  the  classification,  grading,  and  packing 
of  market  eggs  as  adopted  by  the  New  York  Mercantile 
Exchange  are  as  follows: 

RULE  1 — CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING 

1.  Eggs  shall  be  classified  as  "fresh  gathered,"  "held," 
"refrigerator,"  and  "limed." 

2.  There   shall    be   grades    of   "extras,"    "extra   firsts," 
"firsts,"  "seconds,"   "thirds,"   "No.   1  and  2  dirties,"  and 
"checks." 

RULE  2 

1.  All  sales  of  all  grades  of  eggs  shall  be  at  mark. 

QUALITIES 

2.  Fresh  gathered  extras  shall  be  free  from  dirty  eggs, 
of  good  uniform  size,  and  shall  contain  reasonably  fresh, 
reasonably  full,  strong  bodied,  sweet  eggs,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 90%. 

B— 80%. 

C— 65%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss — may  be  slightly 
defective  in  strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  sweet.  The 
maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in  "extras" 
shall  vary  with  the  requirement  of  reasonably  full,  strong 
bodied  eggs  as  follows: 

A — 90%  full,  1  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 80%  full,  ll/2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

When  sold  "storage  packed,"  extras  must  not  contain 
an  average  of  more  than  12  cracked  or  checked  eggs 
per  case. 

3.  Fresh    gathered    firsts    (or    extra    firsts)     shall    be 
reasonably  clean  and  of  good  average  size,  and  shall  con- 
tain   reasonably    fresh,    reasonably    full,    strong    bodied. 


124  EGGS 

sweet  eggs,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Egg  Committee,  as 
follows: 

A— 75%. 

B— 65%. 

C— 50%. 

D— 40%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss — may  be  defective  in 
strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  sweet.  The  maximum 
total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in  "firsts"  or  "extra 
firsts"  shall  vary  with  the  requirements  of  reasonably  full, 
strong  bodied  eggs  as  follows: 

A — 75%  full,  1^2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 50%  full,  3  doz.  maximum  loss. 

D — 40%  full,  4  doz.  maximum  loss. 

When  sold  "storage  packed,"  fresh  gathered  firsts  (or 
extra  firsts)  must  not  contain  an  average  of  more  than 
18  cracked  or  checked  eggs  per  case. 

4.  Fresh   gathered    seconds    shall    be    reasonably    clean 
and  of  fair  average  size,  and  shall  contain  reasonably  fresh, 
reasonably   full   eggs,   at  the   discretion  of  the   Egg   Com- 
mittee, as  follows: 

A— 65%. 

B_50%. 

C— 40%. 

D— 30%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss — may  be  defective  in 
strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  merchantable  stock.  The 
maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in  "sec- 
onds" shall  vary  with  the  proportion  of  reasonably  full 
eggs  required,  as  follows: 

A — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 50%  full,  3  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 40%  full,  4  doz.  maximum  loss. 

D — 30%  full,  5  doz.  maximum  loss. 

5.  Fresh  gathered  thirds  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and 
of  fair  average   size,   and   shall   contain   reasonably   fresh, 
reasonably  full,  sweet  eggs,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Egg 
Committee,  as  follows: 


EGGS  125 

A— 50%. 

B— 30%. 

C— 20%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss — may  be  defective  in 
strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  merchantable  stock.  The 
maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in  ''thirds" 
shall  vary  with  the  requirements  of  reasonably  full,  sweet 
eggs,  as  follows: 

A — 50%  full,  4  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 30%  full,  5  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 20%  full,  6  doz.  maximum  loss. 

6.  Held    firsts    shall     be     reasonably     clean,     of    good 
average  size,   and  sweet.     At  least  40%   shall  be   reason- 
ably  full   and   strong.      The   balance   may   be   defective   in 
strength  and  fulness,  but  not  badly  shrunken,  excepting 
the  loss.      There   may  be   a  total   average   loss   of   2   doz. 
per  case,   but  if  the  loss  exceeds  that  by   not  more  than 
50%  the  eggs  shall  be  a  good  delivery  upon  allowance  of 
the  excess. 

7.  Held  seconds  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and  of  fair 
average    size.       May    be    defective    in    fulness,    strength, 
and   flavor,   but   must   be   merchantable   stock,    not   musty. 
There  may  be  a  total  average  loss  of  4  doz.  per  case. 

8.  Refrigerator  extras  shall  be  free  from  dirty  or  small 
eggs,  reasonably  full,  strong,  sweet,  and  free  from  mildew 
or  foreign  taste  or  odor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A—  iy2  doz. 

B— 2  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

9.  Refrigerator  firsts  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and  of 
good  average  size;   they  must  be  reasonably  full,  strong, 
and  sweet,  and  free  from  mildew  or  foreign  taste  or  odor. 

The   maximum   loss   shall   be,   at   the   discretion   of   the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 
A— 2  doz. 
B— 3  doz. 


126  EGGS 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

10.  Refrigerator  seconds  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and 
of  fair  average  size;  they  must  be  reasonably  full,  strong, 
and  sweet,  and  free  from  mildew  or  foreign  taste  or  odor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A — 3  doz. 

B— 4  doz. 

Cases  shall  be  substantial,  and  fillers  and  packing 
reasonably  sweet. 

11.  Refrigerator  thirds  shall  be  of  fair  appearance  and 
may  be  off-flavored  to  some  extent. 

The   maximum   loss   shall    be,    at   the   discretion    of   the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 
A— 5  doz. 
B— 6  doz. 
Cases  shall  be  substantial. 

12.  Limed  extras  shall  be  of  uniformly  good  size,  well 
cleaned,    strong    bodied,    and    reasonably    full    and    sweet. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— \y2  doz. 

B— 2  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
*'storage  packed." 

13.  Limed   firsts   shall   be    of   good   average   size,    well 
cleaned,  of  good  strength,  reasonably  full  and  sweet. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 2  doz. 

B— 3  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

14.  Limed  seconds  shall  be   of  fair  average  size,  well 
cleaned,  of  good  strength,  and  reasonably  full  and  sweet. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 


EGGS  127 

A— 3  doz. 
B— 4  doz. 

Cases  shall  be  substantial,  and  fillers  and  packing 
reasonably  sweet. 

15.  Limed  thirds  shall   comprise  stock  which  is  rusty, 
weak,   or  shows  hot  weather  defects,  but  must  contain  at 
least  50%  of  fairly  useful  quality. 

The   maximum   loss   shall   be,    at   the    discretion   of   the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 
A— 5  doz. 
B — 6  doz. 
Cases  shall  be  substantial. 

16.  No.  i  dirties  may  be  offered  in  the  classes  of  Fresh 
Gathered,    Held,    arid    Refrigerator.      They    must    be    of 
good,  useful  quality,  sweet  in  flavor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  correspond  with  the  require- 
ments for  "firsts"  in  the  class,  at  the  time  when  offered. 

When  sold  "storage  packed,"  No.  1  dirties  must  not 
contain  more  than  18  cracked  or  checked  eggs  per  case. 

17.  No.  2  dirties  may  be  offered  in  the  classes  of  Fresh 
Gathered,  Held,  and  Refrigerator. 

The  quality,  if  fresh  gathered,  shall  be  the  same  as 
specified  for  No.  1  dirties. 

If  held,  or  refrigerator,  may  be  off-flavored,  but  not 
musty. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  correspond  with  the  require- 
ments for  "seconds"  in  the  class,  and  at  the  time  when 
offered. 

Checked  eggs  may  consist  of  blind  checks  and  cracked 
eggs  (not  leaking).  They  must  be  sweet  in  flavor,  and 
the  loss  must  not  exceed  3  doz.  per  case. 

18.  Loss,    as   used    in    these    rules,    shall    comprise    all 
rotten,   spotted,   broken    (leaking),   broken-yolked,   hatched 
(blood-veined),   and   sour    eggs.      Very   small,   very   dirty, 
cracked   (not  leaking),  badly  heated,  badly  shrunken,  and 
salt  eggs  shall   be  counted   as   half  less  in  all  grades  ex- 
cepting dirties  and  checks.     *     *     * 


128  EGGS 

19.  At  the  discretion  of  the  Egg  Committee  it  may  put 
in    force    two    grades    of    firsts    at    the    same    time,    one 
requiring  a   higher  proportion   of   reasonably   full,   strong- 
bodied   eggs   than   the   other,   and  when  this  is   done,   the 
higher    of   the   two   grades    shall    be   designated   as    "extra 
firsts." 

All  requirements  for  grades  determined  upon  by  the 
Egg  Committee  must  be  chosen  from  those  specified 
under  Rule  2. 

20.  The  classification  provided  in  this  rule  shall  apply 
equally  to  hen  eggs,  duck  eggs  and  goose  eggs,  but  in  the 
case   of  duck  and  goose  eggs  the  maximum  loss  shall  be 
pro    rata    with    the    number    of    dozens    contained    in    the 
packages. 

RULE  3. — PACKAGES  AND  PACKING 

1.  All  grades   of  eggs  not  storage  packed,  shall  be  in 
new    or   good    second-hand   substantial   egg   cases,    of   uni- 
form size. 

Fillers  shall  be  of  substantial  quality,  sweet  and  dry, 
with  flats  or  other  suitable  substitutes  under  bottom 
•layers  and  over  tops,  and  sweet,  dry  excelsior  or  other 
suitable  packing  under  bottom  and  over  tops. 

Any  grade  of  eggs  not  storage  packed,  which  shall 
inspect  in  quality  according  to  these  rules,  but  be  deficient, 
not  to  exceed  10%  in  flats  or  other  suitable  substitutes 
and  tops  and  bottoms,  shall  be  a  good  delivery. 

2.  Storage   packed.      When   sold   as    "storage  packed," 
all   grades  must  be  in   new   30  doz.   cases,  well  seasoned, 
smooth,  clean,  and  substantial,  fillers  dry,  sweet,  medium, 
No.   1,  or  other  good  substantial  straw  board,  flats  under 
bottom  layers  and  over  tops.     The  packing  shall  be  dry, 
sweet    excelsior    under    bottoms    and    over    tops,    unless 
otherwise  specified. 

3.  To  be  a  good  delivery,  all  eggs  must  be  packed  in 
30  doz.  cases  except  goose  eggs,  which  may  be  packed  in 
any    style   of   packages    containing    not   less    than    10   doz. 
each,  and  duck  eggs,  which  may   be  packed  in  any  style 
of  packages  containing  not  less  than  15  doz.  each. 


EGGS  129 

CARE  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  EGGS 
CARE  OF  EGGS 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  has  given  marked  attention  to  in- 
vestigations the  results  of  which  it  is  thought  will  add 
considerably  to  the  value  of  egg  products  by  saving 
many  millions  of  dollars  as  the  result  of  more  care  in 
handling  them. 

Eggs  contain  a  large  percentage  of  moisture,  which 
will  evaporate  through  the  shell.  The  evaporation  is 
more  rapid  when  the  eggs  are  exposed  to  heat  or  vari- 
ations in  temperature.  Mr.  Greenlee,  of  the  Food  Re- 
search Laboratory  of  the  government,  says  that  chemical 
analyses  of  eggs  by  various  investigators  are  fairly 
numerous,  But  that  little  has  been  done  to  correlate  the 
change  in  moisture  content  with  the  age  or  condition 
of  the  egg. 

One  investigator,  who  has  made  an  extensive  study 
of  eggs,  has  found  that  eggs  kept  for  a  year  show  a  loss 
of  weight  equivalent  to  10%  of  the  total  weight,  which 
loss  is  largely  water  evaporated  from  the  whites.  He 
found  also  that  when  fresh  eggs  are  boiled  a  loss  in 
weight  occurs,  whereas  storage  eggs  gain  in  boiling. 
Apparently  the  whites  lose  more  water  than  the  yolks, 
and  consequently  gain  more  in  boiling.  The  boiled 
yolks,  when  fresh,  contain  less  than  50%  of  water;  when 
cold-stored,  this  percentage  is  increased,  the  figures 
reaching  64%  in  the  last  examination.  This  would  indi- 
cate that  the  yolks  of  eggs  in  storage  gather  moisture 
from  the  whites  and  that  the  whites  evaporate  moisture 
through  the  shell. 

Other  experiments  made  by  the  government  chemists 
do  not  indicate  definitely  that  water  passes  from  the 
white  to  the  yolk.  The  same  results,  they  say,  would 
be  obtained  if  the  white  took  up  solids  from  the  yolks. 
They  say  further  that  the  phenomena  of  a  transfer  of 
water  from  the  white  to  the  yolk  may  easily  be  ex- 


130  EGGS 

plained  by  the  simple  process  of  osmosis.  The  yolk, 
which  contains  a  very  high  percentage  of  solids,  is 
surrounded  by  a  membraneous  tissue  called  the  vitelline 
membrane,  which,  in  turn,  is  surrounded  by  the  egg 
white,  a  liquid  much  more  dilute  than  the  yolk.  By 
osmosis,  the  water  passes  through  the  membrane  from 
the  more  dilute  to  the  more  concentrated  solution  until 
a  constant  equilibrium  is  obtained.  This  process  con- 
tinues until  the  vitelline  membrane  becomes  so  weak 
that  it  breaks,  when  the  white  and  the  yolk  begin  to 
lose  their  identity. 

Professor  Lamson  writes  that  the  egg  is  complex 
chemically,  and,  like  milk,  it  is  one  of  the  best  places 
for  bacteria  to  multiply.  The  work  of  these  organisms 
is  to  simplify  or  decompose  the  white  and  the  yolk  until 
the  egg  is  seemingly  worse  than  useless;  though  even 
rotten  eggs  find  a  place  in  the  market  for  polishing 
leather,  and  are  sold  by  the  large  packing  houses  for 
that  purpose. 

Fresh-laid  eggs  will  be  contaminated  if  left  even  for 
a  short  time  under  unfavorable  conditions.  A  case  of 
eggs  that  are  perfectly  good  may  be  taken  from  cold 
storage  on  a  hot  day  in  summer,  hauled  from  the  storage 
house  in  a  wagon  to  the  retail  store,  be  opened  imme- 
diately and  the  eggs  placed  in  baskets  for  sale.  The 
exposure  of  the  eggs  so  quickly  to  a  heated  temperature 
causes  moisture  to  gather  on  the  surface  of  the  shell. 
This  is  called  sweating.  The  moisture  that  gathers  on 
the  egg-  dissolves  the  coating  of  albumen  that  partly 
fills  the  pores  of  the  egg;  thus,  the  heated  atmosphere 
works  through  into  the  interior  of  the  shell  and  in  a 
very  few  hours  the  eggs  begin  to  change  in  quality.  By 
the  time  they  are  carried  home  and  prepared  for  the 
table,  they  are  not  nearly  so  good  as  they  would  have 
been  if  they  had  been  properly  cared  for. 

When  the  eggs  are  taken  from  cold  storage  or  from 
a  refrigerator  car  they  should  be  kept  in  the  store  or 
the  storehouse  away  from  the  cold-storage  room  for  from 
12  to  24  hr.  without  opening  the  case.  This  will  temper 


EGGS  131 

the  eggs  and  bring  them  to  or  near  to  the  temperature 
of  the  room.  When  the  case  is  opened  after  this  wait, 
the  eggs  will  be  dry  and  will  be  much  better  for  selling 
and  for  table  use  than  they  would  be  if  treated  in  the 
other  manner.  The  greater  part  of  all  the  deterioration 
in  eggs  is  directly  blamable  on  careless  handling. 

Eggs  that  are  perfectly  fresh  when  put  in  cold  storage 
will,  if  packed  in  clean  cases  and  properly  stored,  be 
quite  as  good  as  when  removed  from  cold  storage  as 
they  were  when  placed  there.  More  cold-storage  eggs 
are  injured  between  the  time  they  are  removed  from 
storage  and  are  sold  than  are  injured  while  in  the  cold- 
storage  room.  If  low-grade  or  inferior  eggs  are  placed 
in  cold  storage,  they  will  be  worse  when  taken  out  of 
storage  than  they  were  when  placed  in  storage. 

Eggs  that  are  fresh  and  good  and  poultry  that  is  fresh, 
good,  and  properly  dressed  will,  if  carefully  packed, 
keep  in  cold  storage  for  many  months,  and  be  nearly 
or  quite  as  good  for  food  as  they  were  when  placed  in 
storage.  Eggs  that  have  been  heated  in  transit  or  that 
have  not  been  cared  for  properly  prior  to  being  placed 
in  storage,  will  have  deteriorated  when  taken  from 
storage.  Such  eggs  are  the  kind  that  call  down  con- 
demnation on  cold-storage  eggs.  The  same  is  true  of 
dressed  poultry.  If  it  is  good  when  placed  in  storage,  it 
will  be  good  when  it  comes  out;  if  it  is  inferior  when 
placed  in  storage  it  will  be  less  fit  for  food  when  taken 
out  than  it  was  when  it  was  placed  in  storage. 

Most  fresh-laid  eggs  are  a  typically  perfect  food,  but 
they  may  be  infected  almost  immediately  after  being 
laid.  For  example,  the  filth  of  nesting  material  may 
adhere  to  the  moist  surface  of  fresh-laid  eggs  and  so 
infect  them  as  to  render  them  unfit  for  food.  Such  con- 
tamination will  speedily  spoil  the  eggs  in  spite  of  the 
most  careful  later  handling.  Eggs  left  in  the  nest  for 
a  few  hours  when  the  weather  is  very  hot  may  be  in- 
jured. It  is  not  unusual  for  the  temperature  at  noon 
to  be  98°  or  100°  inside  of  some  poultry  houses.  Eggs 
that  are  laid  in  infected  nesting  material  and  left  there 


132  EGGS 

a  few  hours  in  such  a  temperature  will,  within  an  hour 
or  two,  show  blood  spots  and  decomposition. 

Laying  hens  should  be  kept  apart  from  the  males 
during  the  summer  months,  because  infertile  eggs  will 
keep  good  much  longer  at  summer  temperatures  than 
fertile  eggs.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  for  the  males 
to  run  with  the  hens  at  any  other  time  than  during  the 
breeding  season. 

Quality  of  Eggs.— Eggs  that  are  old  and  undesirable  may 
be  called  stale,  decomposed,  or  rotten,  according  to  their 
condition.  Any  deterioration  in  eggs  brings  them  and 
their  vendor  into  disfavor.  Consumers  partial  to  eggs 
that  are  perfectly  fresh  will  turn  in  disgust  from  eggs 
served  in  soiled  shells.  This  is  reason  sufficient  for  the 
greatest  care  in  safeguarding  egg  production  by  means 
of  clean  houses,  clean  nests,  and  clean  and  healthy  hens. 
Eggs  should  be  gathered  frequently,  at  least  three  or 
four  times  daily,  in  both  cold  and  warm  weather.  All 
eggs  the  shells  of  which  are  the  least  bit  soiled  or  off- 
colored  should  be  placed  by  themselves  to  be  cleaned 
and  sorted  or  graded  before  they  are  sent  to  market. 

No  other  food  product  will  gain  in  price  from  proper 
grading  so  greatly  as  eggs.  They  can  be  graded  in  size, 
shape,  color,  and  cleanliness,  with  the  result  of  always 
enhancing  the  price. 

Freshness  and  internal  conditions  may  be  determined 
by  -candling.  The  process  of  candling  is  simple.  A 
lamp  is  placed  inside  a  pasteboard  box  having  a  hole 
in  the  top  through  which  the  heat  of  the  lamp  may 
escape,  and  a  hole  two-thirds  the  diameter  of  the  egg 
in  the  side  of  the  box  just  opposite  or  even  with  the 
flame  of  the  lamp.  By  placing  the  egg  against  the  hole 
in  the  side  of  the  box  the  interior  of  the  egg  can  be 
plainly  seen.  If  the  contents  are  perfectly  bright  and 
clear,  the  egg  is  fresh  and  fit  for  food.  If  spots,  shades, 
or  lines  are  visible  through  the  shell,  'the  egg  is  more  or 
less  deteriorated.  Eggs  must  be  tested  in  a  dark  room. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  egg  testerg  sold  for  very 
moderate  prices.  Persons  who  sell  eggs  should  have  one 


EGGS  133 

of  these  testers  and  test  all  their  eggs  before  sending 
them  to  market. 

Eggs  differ  considerably  in  size,  shape,  and  color. 
When  eggs  are  packed  for  market,  either  in  dozen  car- 
tons or  in  egg  cases  of  large  size,  those  of  one  size 
and  one  color  should  be  packed  by  themselves.  The 
standard  size  for  market  eggs  is  24  oz.  per  doz.,  each 
egg  averaging  2  oz.  Eggs  smaller  than  this  are  under 
size;  those  that  are  larger  are  over  size.  Over-sized 
eggs  all  of  one  color  packed  in  clear  cases  will  bring 
the  highest  prices  in  the  markets.  Eggs  that  vary  in 
size,  shape,  and  color,  even  though  perfectly  fresh,  sell 
for  lower  prices.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  fresh-laid 
eggs  all  of  one  size,  shape,  and  color  selling  for  25  to  40 
per  cent,  higher  than  eggs  equally  fresh,  but  of  miscel- 
laneous sizes,  shapes,  and  colors. 

Eggs  selected  for  hatching  should  be  the  finest  obtain- 
able. Never  hatch  an  egg  that  is  small  in  size  or 
inferior  in  shape  and  color.  If  this  rule  is  closely 
adhered  to  for  a  few  years,  the  egg  product  of  a  poultry 
farm  will  almost  double  in  value.  The  same  rigid  selec- 
tion and  grading  should  be  followed  and  continued  year 
after  year,  for  both  hatching  and  selling,  until  no  poor 
eggs,  or  at  least  very  few,  are  produced. 

The  shells  of  all  eggs  should  be  smooth  and  free  from, 
indentations  and  unevenness.  The  surface  of  the  shell 
should  be  finished  and  have  a  polished  appearance.  If 
the  shells  are  white,  they  should  be  perfectly  white  and 
free  from  any  tint  or  shade  whatever;  if  brown  or 
tinted,  they  should  have  an  even  shade  of  color.  When 
the  shells  are  irregular  in  form  or  color  they  are  classed 
as  seconds,  thirds,  or  miscellaneous  in  quality.  No 
eggs  of  this  kind  should  ever  be  found  in  the  first 
selection,  because  they  will  lessen  the  value  of  the 
entire  lot. 

Not  all  of  the  fowls  of  any  one  breed  lay  eggs  of 
proper  size,  shape,  and  color,  but  some  hens  of  all  breeds 
and  varieties  lay  such  eggs.  By  p'roper  selection  of  eggs 
for  hatching,  all  breeds  and  varieties  might  within  10  or 


134  EGGS 

12  yr.  be  so  developed  as  to  produce  eggs  of  the  size  and 
color  proper  for  the  various  breeds.  No  one  breed  excels 
all  others  as  layers;  there  are  good  layers  in  all  breeds 
and  varieties.  The  production  of  many  eggs  of  proper 
size,,  shape,  and  color  may  be  accomplished  with  any 
breed  by  proper  breeding,  selection,  and  care. 

The   color  of  the   yolk   may   be    influenced   largely   by 
feeding   plenty    of   green    stuff.      Experiment   has    show 
that  the  eating  of  dried  alfalfa  leaves  by  the  hens  wil 
produce  eggs  of  good  yolk  color.    White  beets  or  mangel 
eaten  plentifully   will   produce   eggs  having  a  very  pale 
yolk.      Carrots,    kale,    spinach,    green    clover,    and    many 
other  kinds  of  green  feed  will  influence  the  color  of  the 
yolk.      A   plentiful    supply    of   grass    will    always    insure 
eggs  with  yolks  of  good,  rich  color  and  fine  flavor. 

Green  clover,  alfalfa,  rye,  grass,  or  young  corn  are  all 
good  for  feeding  to  laying  hens,  because  they  impart  fine 
color  and  flavor  to  the  eggs.  The  feeding  of  green  rape, 
millet,  or  mustard  is  apt  to  make  both  the  color  and 
flavor  undesirable.  No  kind  of  green  stuff  is  better  for 
feeding  to  hens  in  confinement  during  the  summer 
months  than  short  lawn  clippings  when  perfectly  fresh. 
Carefully  selected  feed  of  all  kinds  is  most  desirable, 
because  of  the  tendency  of  the  feed  to  flavor  the  eggs. 

PRESERVING  EGGS 

It  is  quite  as  necessary  to  have  eggs  well  selected  as 
it  is  to  have  them  properly  preserved  for  keeping.  That 
is,  eggs  that  are  to  be  kept  should  be  fresh,  infertile, 
if  it  is  possible  to  have  them  so,  and  all  of  them  should 
be  laid  in  April,  May,  or  the  early  part  of  June.  No 
eggs  should  ever  be  stored  that  are  laid  when  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  is  above  60°.  When  eggs  are  gathered 
they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  where  the  temperature 
averages  between  40°  F.  and  55°  F.  They  should  never  be 
put  in  the  preservative  until  they  have  been  cooled  thor- 
oughly. The  eggs  that  are  used  for  pickling  or  preserv- 
ing should  have  smooth,  strong  shells.  Eggs  with  shells 
that  are  rough  or  porous  are  not  well  suited  for  storage. 


EGGS  135 

The  eggs  should  not  be  washed  or  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  the  stove  or  sun.  Never  keep  eggs,  either  in  or  out 
of  storage,  where  they  are  in  danger  of  contamination 
from  potatoes,  onions,  kerosene  oil,  or  anything  that  will 
impart  an  odor  which  may  be  absorbed  by  the  eggs. 

The  best  method  of  keeping  the  eggs  good  for  food  for 
any  length  of  time  is  that  of  cold  storage.  The  ideal 
cold  storage  for  eggs  is  that  which  has  a  temperature 
ranging  between  32°  F.  and  36°  F.  The  atmosphere 
should  be  dry  or  nearly  so,  yet  there  should  be  sufficient 
moisture  in  the  air  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  eggs. 
The  requirements  for  success  in  keeping  eggs  are  that 
they  shall  be  protected  from  evaporation  and  that  there 
shall  be  no  penetration  which  makes  possible  the  de- 
struction of  the  eggs  through  the  presence  of  bacteria 
and  molds. 

Eggs  may  be  kept  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  accord- 
ing to  their  condition  and  the  method  used  to  preserve 
them.  Eggs  packed  in  bran,  oats,  or  perfectly  dry  sand 
will  keep  longer  than  eggs  exposed  to  the  air.  Eggs 
packed  in  salt  and  kept  in  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  or 
55°  F.  where  it  is  perfectly  dry  will  keep  good  for  a 
number  of  months.  Eggs  coated  with  shellac,  varnish, 
vaseline,  or  tallow,  and  stored  in  a  dry  cool  place  will 
keep  for  a  number  of  weeks. 

The  most  successful  method  of  storing  eggs  at  home 
is  by  the  use  of  liquid  preparations  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  use  of  lime  water  for  this  purpose  has  been 
general  throughout  the  world.  In  France  a  solution  with 
from  8  to  10%  of  unslaked  lime  or  20%  of  slaked  lime  in 
pure  water  is  used.  In  the  United  States  a  solution 
containing  both  salt  and  lime  is  in  common  use. 

Eggs  laid  during  the  month  of  April  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  selected  for  storing;  they  keep  better  than  eggs 
laid  at  other  times.  Eggs  laid  in  May  and  June  are 
next  best.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that 
April  eggs  are  usually  very  choice,  because  the  fowls 
can  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh-grown  green  food, 
which  adds  a  rich  color  to  the  yolk  and  a  delicate  flavor 


136  EGGS 

to  the  egg.  Some  eggs  do  not  keep  well,  however,  no 
matter  when  they  may  be  laid.  Hens  that  have  the  free 
range  of  barnyards,  cqw  barns,  and  pig  pens  gather  food 
that  is  liable  to  spoil  the  flavor  of  the  eggs.  Besides, 
such  food  may  transmit  properties  to  the  eggs  that  will 
prove  detrimental  to  their  keeping.  When  eggs  are 
perfectly  fresh  they  will  keep  very  well,  provided  they 
are  gathered,  as  has  been  stated,  during  weather  that 
is  not  warm  and  are  put  into  the  preservative  as  soon 
as  the  animal  heat  has  left  them. 

The  success  obtained  from  preserving  eggs  depends 
largely  on  the  care  in  selecting  them,  the  preparation 
of  the  preserving  liquid,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
place  of  storage.  Eggs  of  bad  flavor  will  not  improve 
from  this  or  any  other  method  of  preserving.  Eggs  with 
a  bad  odor  before  being  put  into  the  preserving  liquid 
will  deteriorate  rather  than  improve.  Eggs  of  poor 
quality  will  not  be  made  better,  but  good  eggs  will 
remain  good  when  they  have  been  put  away  properly. 

Eggs  may  be  preserved  in  lime  water  provided  they  are 
kept  in  tall  vessels;  either  stone  crocks  or  butter  tubs 
can  be  used.  The  liquid  for  covering  the  eggs  is  made 
in  the  proportion  of  3  gal.  of  water  to  1  Ib.  of  salt  and 
1  qt.  of  finely  slaked  lime,  the  lime  and  salt  to  be  mixed 
in  the  water.  This  is  to  be  stirred  frequently  for  a 
period  of  1  to  2  (fa.  Following  this,  the  liquid  should  be 
permitted  to  settle.  The  crock  or  tub  is  then  almost 
filled  with  eggs,  placed,  as  far  as  possible,  with  the 
small  end  down.  The  clear  liquid  solution  of  lime  and 
salt  is  poured  over  them  until  the  surface  of  the  water 
is  fully  an  inch  above  the  top  of  the  eggs.  The  vessel 
should  be  kept  in  an  out-of-the-way  place,  where  the 
temperature  will  not  exceed  50°  F.  A  thin  covering  of 
lime  will  form  on  top  of  the  liquid.  If  undisturbed,  this 
covering  will  protect  the  contents  from  outer  influences. 

A  solution  made  of  1  gal.  of  sodium  silicate,  or  water 
glass,  and  9  gal.  of  water  is  an  efficient  preservative  for 
eggs.  The  water  glass  must  be  diluted  with  warm  water 
and  be  stirred  until  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water. 


EGGS  137 

When  cool,  this  solution  should  be  poured  over  eggs 
placed  in  vessels  as  described  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graph. Eggs  will  keep  fairly  fresh  in  this  solution  for 
5  or  6  mo.,  and  they  have  been  kept  in  edible  condition 
for  a  year.  This  can  be  accomplished,  however,  only 
when  they  are  kept  in  cool  places  and  in  a  temperature 
not  above  45°  F.  Experiments  have  shown  that  under 
some  conditions  a  solution  of  5%  of  water  glass  and  95% 
of  water  will  answer  for  the  keeping  of  eggs;  and  they 
have  kept  fairly  well  in  a  3%  solution  of  the  same 
material.  The  quantity  used  depends  on  the  strength 
of  the  water  glass,  which  is  a  chemical  preparation  that 
may  be  of  several  strengths.  When  the  water  glass  used 
is  of  the  highest  grade,  less  is  required  than  of  the 
lower  grades. 

It  is  of  advantage  to  know  the  size  of  the  receptacle 
needed  for  the  eggs  and  the  quantity  of  liquid  needed 
to  submerge  them.  A  5-gal.  jar  will  hold  about  16  doz. 
eggs.  The  best  results  in  keeping  eggs  in  water  glass 
will  be  realized  by  placing  them  in  a  solution  made  of 
1  part  water  glass  and  9  parts  water.  This  solution  will 
evaporate  more  or  less.  For  this  reason  water  should  be 
added  to  keep  the  solution  properly  balanced  for  pre- 
serving the  eggs.  If  waste  by  evaporation  is  permitted, 
the  solution  will  become  thick  and  heavy.  When  this 
occurs,  the  eggs  in  the  solution  will  not  continue  to  be 
so  good  as  they  will  be  if  the  solution  is  kept  of  the 
proper  consistency. 

Mr.  Olsen,  of  the  Washington  Experiment  Station,  sug- 
gests the  following  as  sufficient  solution  to  cover  the 
number  of  eggs  indicated: 

Capacity  of  Number  of  Water-Glass 

Container  Eggs  Solution 

1  gallon  40  &A  pints 

2  gallons  80  71A  pints 

3  gallons  120  1&A  pints 

4  gallons  160  14^  pints 

5  gallons  200  18      pints 
10  gallons                            400                            36      pints 


138  EGGS 

When  the  eggs  are  removed  from  the  solution  they 
should  be  rinsed  so  as  to  be  entirely  free  from  the  lime 
water  or  the  solution  of  water  glass.  To  do  this,  the 
eggs  can  be  placed  either  in  a  sieve  or  a  colander,  and 
a  running  stream  of  fresh  water  permitted  to  pass  over 
them,  or  buckets  of  fresh  water  may  be  poured  over 
them.  After  being  thoroughly  rinsed,  and  before  they 
are  packed  for  shipment,  they  should  be  laid  out  on  a 
dry  cloth  or  on  boards  until  they  have  become  thor- 
oughly dry. 

A  sodium-silicate  powder  is  now  used  to  some  extent 
for  preserving  eggs  in  place  of  liquid  water  glass.  It 
has  the  same  property  and  it  is  called  water-glass  powder. 
One  pound  of  this  powder  mixed  with  9  pints  of  warm 
water  will  make  a  solution  that  is  fully  equal  to  the 
solution  made  of  the  liquid  water  glass  and  warm  water. 
Eggs  will  keep  quite  as  well  in  this  as  in  the  liquid 
water-glass  mixture.  The  powder  form  is  more  cleanly 
and  less  difficult  to  handle.  It  is  used  in  the  same  way 
as  the  liquid  water  glass.  When  purchasing  the  powder 
be  sure  to  get  the  true  water-glass  powder. 

Another  substitute  which  is  called  a  lime-water  prepa- 
ration is  known  as  Garantol. 


JUDGING  EGGS 

The  largest  displays  of  dressed  poultry  and  market 
eggs  have  been  made  in  Boston.  Efforts  have  been  made 
with  more  or  less  success  toward  the  holding  of  egg  dis- 
plays in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  colleges  at 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  Mountain  Grove,  Mo.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y., 
and  State  College,  Pa.,  have  all  held  such  displays.  The 
score-card  method  of  judging  such  displays  has  been 
used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The'  first  score  card 
of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  was  compiled  by 
George  Fletcher  and  used  by  him  in  judging  egg  dis- 
plays in  Boston. 


EGGS 


139 


In  the  use  of  a  score  card  an  entry  of  eggs  consists  of  one  dozen,  an  exhibit 
consists  of  three  dozen,  and  a  display  of  six  doten. 

Official  Score  Card  for  Eggs 

(Copyright  191S  By  The  American  Poultry  Association) 

(Name  of  Show  or  Association) 

(Date,  Month,  Days  and  Year  of  Show) 

EXHIBITOR                        f                •  ••  ,..-.-./-.   

Address                       -                      

Class                                           '        Entry  No 

Color./  .....n....r.......  ......  Wright  Oz.  
SCORE  CARD  FOR  EXHIBITION  AND  FOR 
COMMERCIAL  EGGS 

When  judging  an  exhibit  of  eggs,  the  scores  of  the  eggs  forming  each  indi- 
vidual entry  are  to  be  added  together;  the  total  then  being  divided  by  the  number  of 
eggs  comprising  the  entry;  and  the  average  so  obtained  shall  be  the  score  of  the 

DISQUALIFICATIONS 
Exhibition  Egg:    Cracked  shell;  extremely  dirty  or  stained  shell;  foreign  shell- 
color;  pronounced  irregularity  of  shape;  sign  of  incubation  or  germ-growth; 
decay,  rot,  mould,  or  mustiness;  blood  rings;  foreign  odor;  or  any  condition 
that  renders  it  unfit  for  food. 
Commercial  Egg:    Sign  of  incubation  or  germ  growth  ;  decay,  rot,  mould,  or  mus- 
tiness ;  blood  ring  ;  or  any  condition  that  renders  it  unfit  for  food. 

Divisions  and  Score  of  a  Perfect  Egg        T^f 

Enty              «««to 

Size  or  Weight  (including  uniformity)        15 

Cleanliness  ..     ........      .'  J5  

Shape  (including  .uniformity)  •                     '5 

Shell  Color  (including  Uniformity)  .»«,.'     5   

Fullness  (as  indicated  by  air  cell)  ......     15   

Quality  tad  F£rane«  of  Wbjte.  ........    20  ..... 

Total  Value....  100 

JUDGE  ... 

SECRETARY  ......k..               ,     ,        - 

—  ^—  '  

140  EGGS 

Several  of  the  poultry  departments  of  colleges  located 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  have  compiled 
score  cards.  One  of  the  best  of  these  was  compiled  by 
the  committee  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  for 
use  in  the  "American  Poultry  and  Egg  Standard,"  which 
had  not  been  published  up  to  1919.  This  score  card 
(shown  on  page  139)  has  been  copyrighted  by  the  Amer- 
ican -Poultry  Association  and  can  be  obtained  from  the 
secretary  of  the  association  for  general  use. 

The  color  of  the  shell  of  all  the  eggs  in  any  entry 
should  be  alike,  that  is,  1  doz.  of  white  eggs  should  be 
all  pure  white,  1  doz.  of  brown  eggs  should  be,  all  of 
them,  one  even  shade  of  brown  and  all  alike. 

A  perfect  egg  should  be  oval  in  shape,  about  one  and 
a  half  times  as  long  as  thick,  and  should  taper  evenly. 
Uniformity  of  shape  should  be  demanded  and  color 
should  have  almost  equal  consideration  with  shape.  All 
eggs  must  be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  stains,  and 
the  surface  of  the  shell  must  be  firm,  smooth,  and  free 
from  uneven  places. 

The  size  of  the  air  cell  is  likely  to  be  the  best  external 
test  of  age.  An  egg  that  is  perfectly  fresh  should  not 
show  an  air  cell  that  is  larger  than  a  10-cent  piece.  The 
albumen,  or  white,  of  the  egg  should  be  firm,  and  the 
shell  should  be  almost  entirely  filled,  leaving  only  the 
very  small  air  cell  visible  to  a  strong  light.  All  eggs 
should  be  candled,  especially  in  keen  competition. 


EGG  PRICES 

The  prices  of  eggs  throughout  the  world  are  governed 
largely  by  the  prices  paid  in  the  densely  populated  cen- 
ters. These  prices  for  the  United  States  are  governed 
by  the  prices  paid  in  Boston,  Chicago,  and  New  York. 
Toronto  is  the  market  center  of  Canada;  London  and 
Manchester  make  the  prices  for  Europe.  Eggs  are  quoted 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  by  the  dozen,  or  by 
the  crate,  which^contains  30  doz.  In  London  the  quota- 


EGGS  141 

tion  is  by  the  long  hundred  (120).  Eggs  are  designated 
in  the  London  market  according  to  the  locality  from 
which  they  are  sent,  and  as  this  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 
an  indication  of  their  freshness  and  quality,  it  has  an 
influence  on  the  quotations.  The  highest  quotations  are 
for  the  best  English  eggs,  and  they  are  usually  fully 
equal  to  the  prices  asked  in  America  for  fancy  hennery 
eggs.  French,  Danish,  and  Italian  eggs  will  grade  with 
what  we  call  near-by  eggs  and  eggs  for  storage  in 
America.  The  best  of  the  eggs  that  are  sent  from  Ire- 
land over  to  London  are  sold  for  English  eggs.  Eggs 
from  more  distant  countries  are  graded  about  the  same 
as  our  second  or  third  qualities  in  America. 

Prior  to  1914,  eggs  like  those  sold  in  the  New  York 
market  as  fancy  hennery  for  25c.  a  dozen  sold  in  London 
at  about  22c.  a  dozen.  During  1917  and  1918,  eggs  that 
sold  in  New  York  as  fancy  hennery  at  70c.  sold  in 
London  for  $1.20.  During  the  winter  of  1918-1919  the  best 
grade  of  fancy  hennery  eggs  sold  in  New  York  for  90c. 
to  $1.00  a  dozen,  while  the  same  grade  of  eggs  sold  in 
England  for  $1.78  a  dozen.  Eggs  have  sold  in  New  York 
prior  to  1914  from  as  low  as  17c.  a.  dozen  in  April  to  as 
high  as  52c.  in  winter.  The  average  price  on  the  New 
York  market  during  1917  was  52c. 

Prior  to  1912  there  was  published  in  this  book  a 
comparison  of  egg  prices  in  the  New  York  and  London 
markets,  a  part  of  which  we  repeat.  The  following  com- 
parison is  made  from  the  quotations  given  in  the  New 
York  and  London  markets  for  the  month  of  May,  1909. 
As  an  English  shilling  was  then  equivalent  to  24^c.  in 
American  money,  and  an  English  penny  was  equivalent 
to  2c.,  the  London  quotations  of  8/4  to  9/2  for  120  eggs 
is  about  equivalent  to  20c.  to  22c.  a  dozen.  The  quota- 
tions given  cannot  be  accepted  as  a  guide  for  the  selling 
price  of  eggs,  but  they  furnish  an  approximate  indication 
of  the  relative  selling  prices  in  New  York  and  London. 
Eggs  sold  in  New  York  at  that  same  date  at  from  23c. 
to  25c*.  a  dozen.  The  prices  fluctuate  considerably  in 
both  markets  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  During 


142  SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

the  years  1917  and  1918  eggs  sold  in  the  London  market 
at  about  20c.  to  25c.  a  dozen  more  than  they  were  sold 
for  in  the  New  York  market. 

The  indications  are  that  eggs  will  continue  to  be  very 
high  in  price  throughout  the  world  for  several  years. 

The  prices  paid  for  eggs  in  America  during  the  winter 
and  spring  of  1918  and  1919  are  some  indication  of  what 
they  are  likely  to  sell  for  in  the  future.  The  grading 
of  eggs  is  likely  to  be  changed  throughout  the  world, 
thus  to  standardize,  if  possible,  all  grades  of  eggs  in  all 
countries.  There  will  be  an  effort  to  do  the  same  as  to 
price  grading  of  market  poultry. 


SELECTING    HENS   FOR   EGG   PRO- 
DUCTION 


RULES  FOR  JUDGING 

The  poultry  departments  of  agricultural  colleges  and 
of  experiment  stations  have  worked  continually  for 
several  years  to  devise  a  plan  or  method  which  might 
be  followed  in  the  selecting  of  the  best  laying  hens  in 
flocks  of  poultry. 

The  pelvic-bone  system  which  is  a  part  of  the  Hogan 
system  has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent.  This 
system  describes  the  best  layers  as  having  pelvic  bones 
that  are  thin  and  so  placed  that  four  fingers  may  be  held 
between  the  point  of  the  breast  bone  and  the  end  of  the 
pelvic  bone.  This  can  be  done  only  when  the  hen  is  a 
prolific  layer  and  in  full  lay.  Another  test  is  that  the 
points  of  the  pelvic  bone  of  a  good  layer  stand  wide 
apart.  The  disadvantage  of  this  system  is  that  if  the 
best  layers  are  examined  when  in  full  lay  and  examined 
again  when  not  laying  at  all  there  will  be  a  marked 
difference  in  the  distances  between  both  of  these  meas- 
urements. This  is  caused  by  a  shrinkage  in  the  abdomen 
when  the  hen  is  not  laying. 


SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION   143 

Poultrymen  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  parts  of 
Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  are  partial  to  White  Leg- 
horns. The  experts  at  the  head  of  the  poultry  depart- 
ments of  these  states  have  devised  a  plan  for  judging 
the  past  record  of  laying  hens;  in  other  words,  they  have 
devised  a  set  of  rules  which  may  best  be  applied  to 
laying  hens  during  the  fall  to  make  certain  which  of 
them  have  produced  the  most  eggs  during  the  past  year. 
The  work  done  along  this  line  in  these  several  states 
was  presented  to  a  large  gathering  of  poultry  experts, 
poultry  judges,  and  college  professors  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity early  in  July  of  1918.  All  who  had  done  work 
along  this  line  presented  the  results  obtained  by  them, 
and  after  considerable  consultation  a  set  of  rules  was 
adopted  for  judging  fowls  for  good  production.  These 
rules  are  as  follows: 

A  METHOD   OF  JUDGING  FOWLS  FOR  EGG 
PRODUCTION 

(Formulated  at  the  Judging  School  held  at  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  July  1-6,  1918,  and  approved 
by  the  American  Association  of  Instructors  and  Investi- 
gators in  Poultry  Husbandry.) 

In  order  to  lay  well  a  fowl  must  have  a  sound  body. 
As  a  first  consideration  it  must  be  vigorous  and  healthy 
if  it  is  to  be  able  to  lay  well.  Vigor  and  health  are 
shown  by  a  bright,  clear  eye,  a  well-set  body,  a  com- 
paratively active  disposition,  and  a  good  circulation. 
Further,  the  fowl  must  be  free  from  physical  defects 
such  as  crooked  beak,  long  toe  nails,  eyelids  that  over- 
hang so  that  it  cannot  see  well,  scaly  leg,  or  anything 
that  would  keep  it  from  seeing  or  getting  an  abundance 
of  food. 

In  the  illustration  on  the  following  page  the  parts  of  a 
fowl  that  receive  particular  attention  in  judging  fowls 
for  egg  production  are  numbered,  and  the  names  of  the 
numbered  parts  are  given. 

Loss  of  Fat  Due  to  Laying.— A  laying  fowl  uses  up  the 
surplus  fat  in  the  body,  especially  that  just  under  the 
skin.  In  yellow-skinned  breeds  this  loss  of  fat  can 


144   SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

readily  be  seen  by  the  loss  of  the  yellow  color.  The 
different  parts  of  the  body  tend  to  become  white,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  the  fat  stored  in  the  body  and 
the  amount  of  circulation  of  blood  through  that  part. 
The  changes  occur  in  the  following  order: 

The  vent  changes  very  quickly  with  egg  production  so 
that  white  or  pink  vent  on  a  yellow-skinned  fowl  gener- 


NAMES  OF  NUMBERED  PARTS 


Vent 

Eye  ring 

Ear  lobes 

Beak 

Shank 

Heel  of  shank 


7.  Abdomen 

8.  Pelvic  arches 

9.  Sternal  processes 

10.  Comb 

11.  Wattles 


ally  indicates  that  it  is  laying;  a  yellow  vent  means 
the  opposite.  It  should  be  recognized  that  all  yellow 
color  changes  are  dependent  on  the  feed,  coarseness  of 
skin,  and  size  of  the  fowl.  A  heavy  fowl  fed  on  an 
abundance  of  green  feed  or  other  material  that  will 
color  the  fat  deep  yellow  will  not  bleach  out  nearly  so 
quickly  as  one  of  a  pale  yellow  color. 


SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION   145 

The  eye  ring,  that  is,  the  inner  edges  of  the  eyelids, 
bleach  out  a  trifle  more  slowly  than  the  vent.  The  ear 
lobes  on  Leghorns  and  Anconas  bleach  out  a  little  more 
slowly  than  the  eye  ring,  so  that  a  bleached  ear  lobe 
means  a  little  longer  or  greater  production  than  a 
bleached  vent  or  eyelid. 

The  color  goes  out  of  the  beak  beginning  at  the  base, 
and  gradually  disappears  until  it  finally  leaves  the  front 
part  of  the  upper  beak.  The  lower  beak  bleaches  faster 
than  the  upper  but  may  be  used  where  the  upper  is 
obscured  by  horn  or  black.  On  the  average-colored, 
yellow-skinned  bird,  a  bleached  beak  means  heavy  pro- 
duction for  at  least  4  to  6  wk. 

The  shanks  are  the  slowest  to  bleach  out  and  hence 
indicate  a  much  longer  period  of  production  than  the 
other  parts.  The  yellow  goes  out  from  the  scales  on  the 
front  of  the  shanks  first  and  finally  from  the  scales  on 
the  rear.  The  scales  on  the  heel  or  rear  of  the  hock 
joint  of  the  shank  are  the  last  to  bleach  out  and  may 
generally  be  used  as  an  index  as  to  the  natural  depth 
of  yellow  color  of  the  fowl.  A  bleached-out  shank 
usually  indicates  fairly  heavy  production  for  at  least 
15  to  20  wk. 

The  yellow  color  comes  back  into  the  vent,  eye  ring, 
ear  lobes,  beak,  and  shanks  in  the  same  order  that  it 
went  out,  only  the  color  returns  much  more  quickly 
than  it  goes  out.  A  vacation  or  rest  period  can  some- 
times be  determined  by  the  end  of  the  beak  being 
bleached  and  the  base  being  yellow. 

Body  Changes  Due  to  Laying.— A  laying  hen  has  a 
large,  moist  vent  showing  a  dilated  condition  and  loose- 
ness as  compared  with  the  hard,  puckered  vent  of  a  non- 
laying  hen. 

The  whole  abdomen  is  dilated  as  well  as  the  vent,  so 
that  the  pelvic  arches  are  widespread  and  the  keel  is 
forced  down,  away  from  the  pelvic  arches  so  as  to  give 
large  capacity.  The  more  eggs  a  fowl  is  going  to  lay  the 
following  week  the  greater  will  be  the  size  of  the  ab- 
domen. The  actual  size  of  the  abdomen  is,  of  course, 


146   SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

influenced  by  the  size  of  eggs  laid  and  by  the  size  of 
the  fowl. 

Heavy  production  is  shown  by  the  quality  of  the  skin 
and  the  thickness  and  stiffness  of  the  pelvic  arches.  Fat 
goes  out  from  the  skin  and  body  with  production,  so  that 
the  heavy  producers  have  a  soft,  velvety  skin  that  is  not 
underlaid  by  layers  of  hard  fat.  The  abdomen  in  par- 
ticular is  soft  and  pliable. 

The  sternal  processes  are  very  prominent  and  are  gener- 
ally bent  outward.  The  thicker  and  blunter  the  pelvic 
arches  and  the  greater  the  amount  of  hard  fat  in  the 
abdomen  the  less  the  production  or  the  longer  time  since 
production. 

One  of  the  finer  indications,  but  yet  one  of  the  most 
valuable  in  picking  a  good  layer  is  the  fineness  of  the 
head  and  the  closeness  and  dryness  of  feathering.  The 
head  of  a  high  layer  is  fine.  The  wattles  and  ear  lobes 
fit  close  to  the  beak  and  are  not  loose  and  flabby.  The 
face  is  clean  cut.  The  eye  is  full,  round,  and  prominent, 
especially  when  seen  from  the  front.  The  high  layer  is 
trimmer,  that  is,  the  feathers  lie  closer  to  the  body,  and 
after  heavy  production  the  oil  does  not  keep  the  plumage 
relatively  sleek  and  glossy  but  the  plumage  becomes  worn 
and  threadbare. 

Changes  in  Secondary  Sexual  Characters.— The  comb, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  enlarge  or  contract,  depending  on 
the  ovary.  If  the  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  large, 
full,  and  smooth,  or  hard  and  waxy,  the  bird  is  laying 
heavily.  If  the  comb  is  limp,  the  bird  is  only  laying 
slightly,  and  is  not  laying  at  all  when  the  comb  is  dried 
down,  especially  at  molting  time.  If  the  comb  is  warm, 
it  is  an  indication  that  the  fowl  is  coming  back  into  pro- 
duction. 

Molting.— When  a  fowl  stops  laying  in  the  summer  she 
usually  begins  to  molt.  The  later  a  hen  lays  in  the 
summer  or  the  longer  the  period  during  which  she  lays, 
the  greater  will  be  her  production,  so  that  the  high 
producer  is  the  late  layer  and  hence  the  late  molter. 
The  length  of  time  that  a  hen  has  been  molting  or  has 


SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION   147 

stopped  laying  can  be  determined  by  the  molting  of  the 
primary  feathers.  It  takes  about  6  wk.  to  renew  com- 
pletely the  primary  feathers  next  to  the  axial  feathers 
and  an  additional  2  wk.  for  each  additional  primary  to 
be  renewed. 

Temperament  and  Activity.— A  good  layer  is  more 
active  and  nervous  and  yet  more  easily  handled  than  a 
poor  layer.  A  high  layer  shows  more  friendliness  and 
yet  elusiveness  than  a  poor  bird.  A  low  producer  is 
shy  and  stays  on  the  edge  of  the  flock  and  will  squawk 
when  caught. 

While  the  characters  discussed  have  dealt  specifically 
•with  the  one  year's  production,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  a  high  producer  one  year  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, a  high  producer  in  all  other  years. 

.SCORE   CARD 

The  table  on  page  148  is  a  sample  score  of  15  White 
Leghorns  that  was  made  at  Cornell  University  in  July, 
1918.  The  numbers  1,  2,  3,  etc.  refer  to  the  grade  in 
which  the  fowl  is  classed,  1  being  the  highest.  The 
terms  used  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  preceding 
rules,  as,  for  instance,  vent,  eye  ring,  etc.  Abdomen  and 
capacity  are  used  quite  like  the  ruling  in  the  Hogan 
system.  By  studying  carefully  the  rules  for  judging  and 
this  table  you  will  have  all  the  information  relative  to 
this  work  that  has  been  evolved  up  to  the  time  of  the 
printing  of  this  book.  The  number  of  eggs  estimated  and 
the  number  of  actual  eggs  are  shown  in  comparison.  The 
estimate  was  made  by  the  expert  who  examined  the 
15  White  Leghorns  and  made  this  record  card.  The 
actual  number  of  eggs  laid,  as  shown  in  the  last  column, 
was  obtained  through  the  use  of  trap  nests.  In  the 
table,  x  indicates  a  blank  and  the  term  capacity  relates 
to  capacity  as  an  egg  layer. 


148   SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


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SELECTING  HENS  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION    149 

BARRON  METHOD  OF  SELECTING  LAYERS 

Thomas  Barren,  of  England,  was  the  first  to  make  a 
careful  study  of  the  breeding  of  hens  for  egg  production. 
He  was  very  successful  in  this.  His  efforts  aroused 
poultrymen  throughout  the  world,  and  today  in  every 
land  where  poultry  is  kept  there  is  an  unusual  effort 
being  made  to  breed  for  better  egg  production.  The 
results  of  these  efforts  have  shown  themselves  very 
plainly  in  the  increased  number  of  eggs  per  hen  laid 
throughout  the  civilized  world. 

Mr.  Barron  was  the  first  to  present  a  model  in  writing 
describing  the  physical  characteristics  of  layers.  This 
is  his  description: 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  LAYERS 

Size. — Medium  for  the  breed,  tending  toward  neither 
extreme. 

Plumage. — Rather  tight  in  feather. 

Head. — Skull  rather  narrow,  with  full,  bright  eye. 
Rather  short,  stout  bill.  Comb  fine  in  texture.  Size  not 
as  important  as  texture. 

Neck. — Rather  long,  not  too  thick. 

Body. — Breast  prominent  and  rather  long.  Back  long 
and  wide  across  the  hips.  Good  cushion.  In  short,  a 
square-built  bird  with  body  held  at  such  an  angle  as  to 
throw  the  stern  much  lower  than  the  breast. 

Legs. — Medium  in  length  and  set  well  apart. 

Tail.— Carried  rather  high. 

The  whole  appearance  of  the  bird  should  be  trim  and 
active. 

I  also  pay  some  attention  to  the  pelvic  bones,  the 
pointed  bones,  which  may  be  felt  just  above  the  vent. 
These  should  be  well  separated. 

The  above,  in  brief,  outlines  my  method  of  breeding 
and  selecting  heavy  layers.  It  is  given  to  the  poultrymen 
of  America  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be  of  benefit  to  them. 

THOMAS  BARRON 


150  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  TO  INCREASE 


ARTIFICIAL    LIGHT    TO    INCREASE 
EGG  PRODUCTION 

By  the  use  of  artificial  light  in  the  laying  houses,  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  make  hens  lay  more  ej;gs 
during  the  months  when  the  daylight  is  shortest  and 
the  price  of  eggs  is  highest. 

Writing  in  February,  1919,  Professor  James  E.  Rice,  of 
Cornell  University,  says:  "One  of  the  most  sensational 
developments  of  modern  poultry  husbandry  is  the  dis- 
covery that  by  the  use  of  artificial  light  as  an  aid  to 
feeding  and  activity  the  distribution  of  egg  production 
throughout  the  year  can  be  radically  changed.  So  great 
is  the  change  and  so  certain  the  results  when  artificial 
light  is  properly  applied  to  the  right  kind  of  stock,  in 
conjunction  with  proper  methods  of  feeding,  that  it  is 
destined  to  revolutionize  egg  production  and  the  market 
egg  receipts. 

"It  will  have  the  double  effect  of  (1)  materially  in- 
creasing the  production  and  hence  the  market  receipts 
of  the  autumn  and  early  winter  eggs,  and  (2)  propor- 
tionately decreasing  the  production  and  receipts  during 
the  spring  and  early  summer  months. 

"The  place  where  the  most  marked  results  from  the  use 
of  artificial  light  are  seen  is  in  the  more  rapid  develop- 
ment of  late-maturing  pullets  and  hens  which  under 
normal  conditions  would  not  have  laid  until  toward 
spring.  Here  the  difference  due  to  the  use  of  artificial 
light  is  truly  surprising.  Here  also  is  where  the  largest 
profits  are  to  be  made  by  aiding  the  hens  to  lay  the  eggs 
in  the  autumn  and  winter  months  when  they  are  nor- 
mally highest  in  price,  instead  of  boarding  the  hens 
until  spring  and  then  getting  the  same  eggs  when  they 
are  cheap.  Then,  however,  nearly  as  many  eggs  are 
produced  in  the  spring  as  if  the  hens  had  not  laid  during 
the  autumn  and  winter.  Those  which  have  ceased  to 
lay  in  the  spring  after  a  winter  of  heavy  production  can 


EGG  PRODUCTION  151 

be  sold  on  a  higher  priced  market  than  was  available 
for  the  same  fowls  in  the  previous  autumn." 

Probably  thirty  to  forty  commercial  egg  farms  in  New 
Jersey  tested,  in  1918-1919,  the  use  of  artificial  illumina- 
tion for  increasing  egg  production  during  the  short-day 
period  from  September  1  to  March  1.  Fourteen  of  these 
plants  reported  monthly  to  the  Poultry  Department  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
where  the  records  were  inspected  by  Harry  R.  Lewis, 
Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  and  placed  in  charge 
of  his  assistant  for  compilation.  It  is  expected  that  a 
Bulletin  telling  of  the  results  of  these  experiments  will 
be  published  by  the  State  Agricultural  College,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  A  complete  thesis  on  the  subject  can 
be  obtained  from  the  Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy, 
111. 

The  theory  advanced  is  that  the  use  of  artificial  light 
in  the  poultry  houses  allows  the  hens  more  hours  for 
eating,  thus  giving  them  as  much  time  for  feeding  as 
they  would  ordinarily  have  in  the  spring  and  the  addi- 
tional food  eaten  results  in  increased  number  of  eggs. 

Electric  lights  are  used  where  they  can  be  had  at  a 
reasonable  price.  Lanterns  are  made  especially  for  this 
purpose  and  some  use  tubular  lanterns.  The  houses  are 
lighted  from  4:30  P.  M.  until  8  or  10  P.  M.,  and  from 
5  A.  M.  till  daylight. 


152 


MARKET  POULTRY 


MARKET  POULTRY 

Digestibility  of  Poultry  and  Other  Foods.— In  poultry 
and  other  meats  and  fish,  about  70%  of  the  protein, 
95%  of  the  fat,  and  98%  of  the  carbohydrates  are  diges- 
tible. The  food  principles  in  vegetable  foods  are  not 
as  fully  digestible,  for  in  such  foods  only  about  84% 
of  the  protein,  90%  of  the  fat,  and  97%  of  the  carbohy- 
drates are  digestible. 

In  the  table  giving  the  comparison  of  poultry  and 
certain  other  foods  is  shown  the  composition  of  some 

foodstuffs,  and  it  will 
be  seen  from  this 
that  poultry  meat 
compares  very  favor- 
ably in  food  value 
with  beef,  fish,  eggs, 
milk,  and  potatoes. 
On  an  average,  the 
various  kinds  of 
poultry  furnish  not 
far  from  5%  more 
protein  and  a  little 
more  ash  than  do  the 
other  kinds  of  meat 
included  in  the  table. 
On  the  other  hand, 
the  poultry  meats 

most  used— chicken  and  fowl— contain  relatively  little 
fat  and  have  a  relatively  small  fuel  value.  Pound  for 
pound,  poultry  contains  a  trifle  more  of  the  building 
materials  required  by  the  body,  but  furnishes  less  of 
the  energy-giving  materials  than  the  fat  meats.  As  a 
general  thing,  young  fowls  contain  less  refuse  than  older 
ones,  which  means  that  the  proportion  of  total  bone 
weight  is  smaller;  their  flesh  also  contains  more  water, 
which  indicates  that  it  is  not  so  solid  and  compact  as  in 
older  fowls. 


SILVER-GRAY  DORKING 


MARKET  POULTRY 


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MARKET  POULTRY 


Loss  of  Weight  in  Dressing  Fowls.— On  an  average, 
nearly  one-third  of  the  total  weight  of  a  fowl  is  lost 
in  dressing  and  in  preparing  it  for  cooking.  In  the 
case  of  fowls  thin  in  flesh,  the  loss  is  much  greater  than 
this.  The  least  waste  occurs  in  fowls  that  have  been 
properly  fattened.  Excessively  fat  fowls  and  also 
those  that  are  poor  in  flesh  show  a  large  proportion  of 
waste  on  being  dressed. 

The  table  showing  the  loss  in  dressing  fowls  is  a 
summary  of  an  investigation  at  the  Storrs  Experiment 
Station,  Connecticut.  In  this  experiment  fowls  in  all 
conditions — well-fattened,  thin,  and  excessively  fat — were 
used,  and  their  weights  at  different  stages  in  the  process 
of  dressing  were  noted.  Consequently  the  results  given 
in  the  table  may  be  considered  as  applicable  to  average 
conditions. 

LOSS  IN  DRESSING  FOWLS 


Weight- 

Intes- 

Kind of 
Fowls 

Num- 
ber of 
Birds 

Live 

Weight 
Pounds 

Weight- 
Bled  and 
Plucked 
Pounds 

Loss 
Per 
Cent. 

tines, 
Head, 
and 
Feet  Re- 

Loss 
Per 
Cent. 

moved 

Pounds 

Cocks... 

18 

127.9 

117.9 

7.8 

97.8 

23.5 

Cockerels  . 

278 

1,773.0 

1,577.5 

11.0 

1,312.0 

26.0 

Hens  

201 

1,195.0 

1,103.4 

7.7 

906.3 

24.2 

Pullets.... 

47 

261.1 

240.0 

8.1 

193.7 

25.8 

Total... 

544 

3,357.0 

3,038.8 

9.5 

2,509.8 

25.2 

The  per  cent,  loss  in  dressing  fowls  of  different 
breeds  is  given  in  the  following  table. 

Classes  of  Market  Poultry.— There  are  two  general 
classes  of  market  poultry,  the  heavy-weight  and  the  me- 
dium-weight. The  heavy-weight  class  includes  such 
fowls  as  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Dorkings,  and  Orpingtons. 


MARKET  POULTRY 


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MARKET  POULTRY 


The  medium-weight  class  includes  such  general-purpose 
fowls  as  the  Wyandottes  and  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  In 
addition  to  these  fowls,  broilers  and  other  small  market 
fowls  are  often  made  from  Leghorns  and  crosses  of 
Leghorns  with  some  of  the  general-purpose  fowls. 

Classes  of  Broilers  and  Roasters.— Broilers  are  divided 
into  three  classes:  squab  broilers,  spring  broilers,  and 
fryers  or  large  broilers  or  small  roasters.  Squab  broilers 
range  in  size  from  $4  to  1  Ib.  each  in  weight.  They 
are  used  by  hotels  and  restaurants  during  the  winter 
and  early  spring.  Spring  broilers  are  used  a  little  later 
in  the  season.  When  plump  they  range  in  weight  from 
1  to  V/2  Ib.  The  weight  demanded  increases  as  the 
season  advances,  until  the  2-lb.  size  is  most  popular. 
Fryers,  large  broilers,  or  small  roasters  range  in  weight 
from  2  to  3  Ib.  Roasters  are  generally  of  two  kinds: 
plump,  meaty  roasters  and  soft  roasters. 

The  time  required  to  produce  broilers  and  roasters 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  The  time  required 
for  a  chick  to  grow  to  marketable  size  depends  largely 
on  the  quality  of  the  chick  and  its  breed.  Not  all 
breeds  mature  alike,  and  the  individuals  of  any  one 
breed  will  not  develop  at  a  uniform  rate,  but  when 
bred  and  fed  as  they  ought  to  be  the  average  is  about 
as  indicated  in  the  table. 

TIME  REQUIRED  TO  RAISE  BROILERS  AND 
ROASTERS 


g 

.2 

.s 

_c 

.2 

.2 

Breeds  of  Fowls 

Growth, 
in  Pounds 
8  Wk. 

Growth, 
in  Pounds 
10  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
12  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
21  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
26  Wk. 

Growth, 
in  Pounds 
30  Wk. 

Leghorns 

1 

1M 

American  breeds  
English      and      Belgian 
breeds  

1 
1 

1H 

ilA 

2 

2 

4 

4 

6 
6 

7 
7 

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2 

2J4 

5 

7 

9 

_ 

1 

MARKET  POULTRY  157 

KILLING  AND  PLUCKING  OF  POULTRY, 

Killing.— The  most  satisfactory  methods  of  killing 
poultry  are  by  dislocating  the  neck,  and  by  sticking 
in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  piercing  the  brain  with 
a  knife. 

In  killing  by  dislocating  the  neck,  the  fowl  is  held  in 
front  of  the  operator  with  the  head  hanghig  down; 
both  shanks  are  firmly  grasped  with  the  left  hand; 
the  neck  of  the  fowl  at  the  base  of  the  skull  is  taken 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand, 
with  the  back  of  the  hand  toward  the  tail  of  the  fowl 
and  the  head  held  firmly  in  the  palm  of  the  hand;  the 
head  is  then  pulled  downwards  to  extend  the  neck  to 
its  full  length;  the  final  step  in  the  operation  is  taken 
by  pulling  with  a  jerk  the  already  taut  neck  and  at 
the  same  time  twisting  the  head  upwards,  This  will 
dislocate  the  head  from  the  backbone,  paralyzing  the 
fowl,  snap  the  arteries  in  the  neck,  and  pull  the  head 
away  from  the  neck,  leaving  a  cavity  in  the  neck  large 
enough  to  hold  the  blood  of  the  fowl.  In  this  operation 
no  blood  will  escape  from  the  body,  and  it  is  preferred 
by  some  as  the  best  method  of  killing  fowls  intended  for 
immediate  sale.  When  such  fowls  are  prepared  for 
cooking,  if  the  head  is  severed  1  or  2  in.  back  of  where 
the  blood  has  settled,  all  of  the  blood  clot  will  be 
removed. 

Killing  by  sticking  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  may  be  done 
with  a  special  killing  knife  or  with  a  common  pocket 
knife  that  has  a  sharp  point  and  blade.  Both  shanks  of 
the  fowl  are  tied  with  a  small  piece  of  rope  and  the  loose 
end  of  the  rope  is  tied  to  some  support  so  that  the  fowl 
will  hang  head  downwards  and  at  about  the  height 
of  the  operator's  shoulder.  The  head  of  the  fowl  is 
grasped  in  the  left  hand,  the  mouth  pressed  open,  and 
the  blade  of  the  knife  thrust  through  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  up  into  the  brain  almost  in  a  line  with 
the  eye;  a  cross-cut  is  made  to  sever  the  arteries.  This 
operation  paralyzes  the  fowl  instantly,  and  the  cutting 


158 


MARKET  POULTRY 


of  the  arteries  allows  the  fowl  to  bleed  freely  from  the 
mouth.  To  avoid  being  splashed  with  blood,  the  mouth 
of  the  fowl  should  be  held  away  from  the  operator. 
This  method  of  killing  is  commonly  practiced  in  most 
market  poultry  establishments. 

Pluckmg.—  To  make  the  best  appearance  when  offered 
for  sale  in  the  market,  a  fowl  must  be  plucked  carefully 
so  that  the  skin  will  not  be  torn.  An  experienced  plucker 
will  rub  the  feathers  down  the  wrong  way  both  on  the 
back  and  breast,  using  the  flat  of  his  hand  to  press 
down  and  open  up  the  plumage.  When  the  feathers  are 
separated  in  this  way  they 
may  be  quickly  plucked 
from  the  body  by  holding 
the  shanks  and  the  tips  of 
the  feathers  in  the  hand. 
The  feathers  should  first  be 
pulled  from  the  back,  then 
from  the  breast  and  body, 
leaving  only  the  long,  stiff 
feathers.  These  should  be 
plucked  and  placed  by  them- 
selves. The  best  plan  is  to 
put  the  long  feathers  or 
those  having  heavy  quills 
into  a  box  or  barrel  separate 
from  the  smaller  or  lighter 
feathers.  With  some  prac- 
tice the  operator  will  soon  learn  to  remove  all  of  the 
feathers  quickly  from  the  body  of  the  fowl.  The  process 
should  begin  immediately  after  the  fowl  has  been  killed. 
By  whatever  method  it  is  killed,  the  feathers  will  come 
away  easier  immediately  after  killing  than  they  will 
after  the  body  of  the  fowl  has  cooled  and  become  set. 

The  practice  of  scalding  before  plucking  is  generally 
followed.  The  chief  difficulty  in  this  is  that  the  fowls 
are  dipped  into  water  that  is  too  hot  and  are  frequently 
kept  immersed  so  long  that  the  skin  is  scalded  and 
breaks  and  pulls  from  the  body,  leaving  an  ugly  dark 


HOUDAN 


MARKET  POULTRY 


159 


complexion.  In  scalding  the  fowls,  the  water  should  not 
be  boiling  when  they  are  immersed,  nor  should  boil- 
ing hot  water  be  poured  over  them.  They  should  be 
immersed  in  water  not  quite  boiling,  and  as  quickly 
as  the  feathers  are  thoroughly  soaked  they  should  be 
plucked  gently  from  the  body.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  tear  the  flesh  or  skin. 


POULTRY  PRICES 

A  careful  inspection  of  poultry  prices  over  a  period 
of  years  shows  plainly  that  market  poultry  of  good 
quality  will  sell  at  the  highest  prices  from  the  middle 
of  Dec.  to  the  end  of  June.  This  is  due,  to  a  large 
extent,  to  the  scarcity  of  farm-grown  poultry  in  the 
market  during  these  months. 

The  condition  in  which  poultry  is  offered  for  sale 
has  an  important  influence  on  the  price  it  will  sell  for. 
The  relative  selling  price  per  pound  live  weight,  plucked 
weight,  and  drawn  weight  of  the  same  fowl  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table.  The  plucked  weight  is  the 
weight  of  the  fowl  with  the  feathers  removed  but  with 
the  head  and  feet  left  on.  The  drawn  weight  is  the 
weight  with  the  head,  feet,  and  entrails  removed  and 
the  fowl  ready  for  cooking.  It  will  be  seen  from  this 
table  that  the  selling  price  per  pound,  plucked  weight, 
is  about  33l/&%  more  than  the  live  weight,  and  that  the 
price  per  pound,  drawn  weight,  is  about  100%  greater 

MARKET    VALUE    OF    FOWLS    AT    DIFFERENT 
STAGES 


Live.  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

Plucked  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

Drawn  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

9 
10 
11 
12 

12  }i 
13^ 

146H 

$* 

22 
23  M 

160 


BREEDING 


than  for  the  live  weight,  and  about  50%  greater  than 
for  the  plucked  weight.  This  increase  in  the  selling 
price  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  removal  of  the  waste 
parts  and  also  to  the  labor  entailed.  The  table  furnishes 
a  guide  to  decide  the  price  to  be  fixed  on  the  plucked 
or  drawn  weight  of  any  grade  of  poultry. 


BREEDING 

The  most  important  systems  of  breeding  poultry  for 
exhibition  are  line  breeding,  inbreeding,  strain  breeding, 
and  cross-breeding.  In  any  system  of  breeding,  only 
the  best  breeding  fowls  obtainable  should  ever  be  used 
in  the  breeding  pen.  All  fowls  having  defects  should 
be  promptly  discarded,  even  if  this  leaves  only  two  or 
three  fowls  in  the  breeding  pen.  Fully  enough  poor 
specimens  come  from  the  best  matings,  and  so  few 
good  specimens  come  from  matings  in  which  either  of 
the  fowls  are  defective  that  time  and  money  is  wasted 
in  such  breeding.  Only  fowls  having  the  proper  size, 
shape,  and  color  required  for  the 
variety  can  produce  satisfactory 
offspring.  The  plan  of  mating 
fowls  defective  in  one  section 
|  with  other  fowls  having  excel- 
lent quality  in  the  correspond- 
ing section  usually  results  in 
the  production  of  offspring  hav- 
ing not  more  than  medium 
quality  in  that  section. 

Line  Breeding. — Line  breeding 
is  a  system  of  breeding  from  a 
limited  number  of  original 
fowls,  in  which  the  fowls  mated 
SILVER  LACED  WYANDOTTE  are  not  so  closely  related  as  in 
inbreeding;  line  breeding  is  really  a  modified  form  of  in- 
breeding. Line  breeding  is  often  continued  for  a  number 
of  years  without  the  introduction  of  new  blood  into  the 


BREEDING  .161 

flock,  but  in  such  cases  great  care  is  taken  to  breed 
from  only  the  healthiest  and  most  vigorous  members 
of  the  flock.  To  maintain  the  vitality  of  the  flock, 
only  mature  hens  in  their  second  or  third  year  of  laying 
are  bred  from.  The  success  of  any  work  in  line  breed- 
ing depends  on  the  quality  of  the  original  fowls  that 
are  selected  as  breeders,  and  the  judgment  with  which 
the  later  breeders  are  selected,  both  for  their  quality 
and  for  their  vitality. 

Inbreeding.— Inbreeding  is  a  system  of  breeding  in 
which  the  fowls  mated  are  very  closely  related,  being 
direct  descendants  of  a  very  few  original  fowls.  In- 
breeding differs  materially  from  line  breeding  on  account 
of  the  closeness  of  the  relationship  of  the  fowls.  The 
best  fowls  produced  each  year  are  mated  with  breeders 
of  the  previous  season  and  with  each  other,  even  to  the 
extent  of  pairing  brother  with  sister.  Inbreeding  is 
carried  on  chiefly  with  a  view  to  improving  color  in  a 
flock.  Shape  may  be  improved  by  this  system  of  breed- 
ing, but  this  is  not  usually  the  case.  Loss  of  size 
and  deterioration  of  shape  are  undesirable  features 
that  usually  attend  inbreeding,  and  the  maintenance 
of  vitality  is  also  a  serious  problem.  The  undesirable 
consequences  of  inbreeding  can  be  avoided  only  by  the 
most  careful  attention  to  the  details  of  breeding  and 
to  the  selection  of  the  breeding  fowls.  In  most  cases, 
the  introduction  of  new  blood  into  the  breeding  stock 
will  be  necessary. 

Strain  Breeding.— Strain  breeding  is  a  system  of  breed- 
ing consisting  in  breeding  fowls  of  one  variety  in  line 
for  a  number  of  generations  from  a  few  original  fowls; 
this  breeding  must  also  be  conducted  by  one  breeder, 
or  his  successors.  A  strain  cannot  be  said  to  be  estab- 
lished, even  after  three  or  four  generations  of  breeding, 
unless  the  indications  are  plain  that  the  original  fowls 
selected  for  the  foundation  of  the  strain  have  been  able 
to  transmit  their  characters  through  the  series  of  gen- 
erations, and  also  to  cause  the  production  of  offspring  of 
better  quality  than  themselves. 


162 


BREEDING 


From  the  preceding  statements,  it  is  evident  that  a 
valuable  strain  can  be  produced  only  by  the  most  careful 
selection  of  the  foundation  stock,  and  the  most  skilful 
breeding  during  the  succeeding  generations.  Chance  breed- 
ing cannot  be  relied  on  to  produce  satisfactory  results. 
Cross-Breeding.— Cross-breeding  is  of  two  kinds: 
breeding  together  of  fowls  of  different  breeds;  and 
breeding  together  of  fowls  of  the  same  variety  but 
which  come  from  different  localities  or  from  different 
strains.  Most  commonly,  cross-breeding  is  understood 
to  be  the  mating  together  of  fowls  of  different  breeds, 
such,  for  instance,  as  a  Plymouth  Rock  to  a  Wyandotte, 
or  a  Rhode  Island  Red  to  an 
Indian  Game.  This  form  of 
cross-breeding  is  often  utilized 
in  the  •  production  of  broilers 
and  roasters  for  market,  the 
offspring  from  such  crosses  be- 
ing useless  for  breeding  to- 
gether. The  other  form  of 
cross-breeding,  or  of  breeding 
for  an  out-cross,  is  usually  prac- 
ticed in  the  breeding  of  poultry 
for  exhibition,  and  for  the  pur- 
WHITE  WYANDOTTE  pose  Of  introducing  new  blood 
into  a  strain  to  improve  vitality. 

Methods  of  Mating. — Mating  is  the  act  of  pairing  a 
male  and  a  female  for  the  purpose  of  producing  offspring. 
The  two  general  methods  of  mating  are  single  mating 
and  double  mating.  Single  mating  consists  in  mating 
together  a  male  and  a  female. 

When  fowls  are  mated  for  the  production,  from  the 
same  pair,  of  both  male  and  female  offspring  fit  for 
exhibition,  the  process  is  called  single  mating.  This  is 
the  method  of  mating  commonly  practiced  in  the  mating 
of  fowls  of  most  varieties.  This  method  of  mating 
does  not,  however,  produce  the  best  results  when  the 
production  of  the  most  delicately  marked  fowls  of  the 
varieties  most  difficult  to  produce  is  desired. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       163 

The  mating  of  one  pair  of  fowls  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  male  offspring  fit  for  exhibition  and  another 
pair  for  the  production  of  female  offspring  fit  for  exhi- 
bition is  called  double  mating.  This  is  practiced  to  a 
great  extent  in  the  production  of  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Brown  Leghorns,  partridge-colored  fowls  of  all 
breeds,  and  to  some  extent  in  producing  fowls  that  have 
penciling  or  lacing  in  their  plumage.  In  double  mating, 
great  care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  male  and  the  female 
blood  lines  are  kept  separate,  for  if  blood  lines  are 
crossed,  color  will  be  injured. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF 
POULTRY 


ENEMIES 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

A  parasite  is  any  creature  that  secures  the  whole  or 
part  of  its  living  from  another.  The  parasites  that 
attack  poultry  are  insects. 

Methods  of  Infestation  by  Parasites.— Poultry  become 
infested  with  parasites  in  many  ways,  and  it  is  advis- 
able for  the  poultryman  to  keep  a  close  watch  to 
prevent  such  infestation.  Some  of  the  most  common 
ways  in  which  poultry  becomes  infested  with  parasites 
are:  (1)  by  the  introduction  of  an  infested  fowl  into  a 
flock;  (2)  by  a  hen  infesting  her  chicks  when  they  are 
incubated  or  brooded  in  a  natural  way;  (3)  by  allowing 
infested  fowls  to  roam  at  liberty;  (4)  by  sparrows;  (5) 
by  the  parasites  crawling  up  on  roosts  that  are  not 
protected  by  safety  appliances;  (6)  by  the  parasites 
dropping  on  the  fowls  from  the  ceilings  of  houses;  (7) 
in  nest  boxes;  (8)  in  dust  baths. 

Effects  of  Parasites  on  Poultry.— Parasites  cause  more 
disease,  ill  health,  and  death  among  poultry  than  all 


164       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

other  causes  combined.  The  following  are  the  principal 
specific  effects  resulting  from  parasites:  (1)  They  re- 
duce the  vitality  of  poultry;  (2)  they  lessen  egg  pro- 
duction; (3)  they  deduct  from  the  table  qualities  of  fowls 
intended  for  market  poultry;  (4)  they  interfere  with 
the  proper  performance  of  the  natural  duties  of  incuba- 
ting and  brooding;  (5)  they  cause  the  loss  of  parts 
of  a  fowl's  body;  (6)  they  infest  poultry  with  other  and 
additional  varieties  of  parasites;  (7)  they  infect  poultry 
with  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases, 

Rapidity  of  Reproduction  of  Poultry  Parasites.— The 
exact  time  required  for  poultry  parasites  to  produce 
.  new  generations  cannot  be  stated  definitely.  Under 
favorable  conditions,  however,  all  kinds  of  poultry  para- 
sites are  very  prolific  and  will  increase  to  an  alarming 
extent.  Salmon  states  that  the  third  generation  from  a 
single  louse  may  number  more  than  120,000,  and  all  of 
these  may  be  produced  within  a  period  of  8  wk.  Such 
a  rapid  increase  being  possible,  the  result  of  intro- 
ducing into  a  flock  a  fowl  that  is  thoroughly  infested 
with  parasites  can  readily  be  surmised.  Such  a  fowl  is 
sure  to  do  injury. 

Poultry  parasites  multiply  particularly  fast  in  damp, 
filthy,  unsanitary  places — surroundings  that  are  unfavor- 
able to  poultry  even  when  not  infested  with  parasites. 
Poultry  parasites,  however,  will  also  develop  rapidly 
in  clean  places  if  the  air  is  allowed  to  remain  hot 
and  moist  for  any  length  of  time. 

PARASITES  ATTACKING  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 

The  parasites  that  are  found  occasionally  on  domestic 
poultry  are:  Large  chicken  louse  (Goniocotes  abdomi- 
nalis) ;  lesser  chicken  louse  (Goniocotes  hologaster).  The 
Goniodes  dissimilis  and  the  Goniocotes  burnettii  are  rarely 
found  on  fowls. 

A  louse  that  is  sometimes  found  on  fowls  and  which 
does  considerable  damage  to  the  feathers  when  present 
in  large  numbers  is  the  variable  chicken  louse,  or 
feather  louse  (Lipeurus  variabilis) . 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       165 

The  parasites  that  frequently  infest  domestic  poultry 
are:  Common  hen  louse  (Menopon  pallidum);  red  mite, 
chicken  mite,  or  red  spider  louse  (Dermanyssus  gallinae) ; 
itch,  or  scab,  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  laevis,  var.  gallinae), 
scaly  leg  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  mutans). 

The  parasites  infesting  turkeys,  peafowls,  and  guinea 
fowls,  in  addition  to  the  common  hen  louse  and  the  red 
mite  are  Lipeurus  polytrapezius,  Goniodes  stylifcr,  Gonio- 
cotes  rectangulatus,  Goniodes  falcicornis,  and  similar  ones. 

The  parasites  most  commonly  infesting  water  fowls 
are  Trinoton  luridum;  Lipeurus  squalidus,  which  is  com- 
monly found  on  ducks;  Trinoton  lituratum;  Ornithobius 
cygni,  which  is  commonly  found  on  geese;  and  Doco- 
phorus  cygni,  which  is  commonly  found  on  swans. 

The  parasites  most  commonly  infesting  pigeons  are: 
Common  pigeon  louse  (Goniocotes  compar),  Lipeurus  bacu- 
lus,  Goniodes  danticornis,  and  two  varieties  of  fleas. 

INSECTICIDES 

The  substances  that  are  used  to  kill  insects  are  called 
insecticides.  The  three  general  classes  of  insecticides 
that  are  employed  to  kill  the  parasites  that  infest  poul- 
try are  powders,  liquids,  and  fumes.  The  powders  have 
to  be  dusted  on  the  bodies  of  the  parasites  so  that  the 
fine  particles  of  the  material  will  be  drawn  into  the 
breathing  tubes  of  the  insects.  These  tubes  are  thus 
clogged,  and  the  insect  dies  of  suffocation.  The  liquids 
kill  because  they  are  corrosive  or  because  they  get  into 
the  breathing  tubes  of  the  insects  and  suffocate.  The 
fumes  employed  kill  because  they  suffocate. 

All  poultry  parasites  except  mites  can  be  kept  under 
control,  so  far  as  their  presence  on  the  bodies  of  birds 
is  concerned,  by  the  use  of  insect  powders.  Insect 
powders,  however,  are  not  so  efficient  for  destroying 
parasites  about  poultry  buildings  as  liquid  and  fume 
insecticides.  Insecticides  containing  arsenic,  such  as 
Paris  green,  or  other  deadly  poisons,  should  never  be 
used  about  poultry  buildings,  as  they  are  likely  to  poison 
both  poultry  and  attendants. 


166       ENEMIES  AND  D7SEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Powder  Insecticides.— To  be  suitable  for  killing  the 
parasites  of  poultry  that  can  be  destroyed  by  powders, 
a  powder  must  be  very  fine — at  least  as  fine  as  ordinary 
road  dust— perfectly  dry,  and  not  possess  any  adhesive 
qualities.  Many  kinds  of  powders  are  used  for  destroy- 
ing the  parasites  of  poultry.  They  consist  of  substances 
that  range  from  the  most  deadly  poisons  to  the  most 
harmless  materials,  and  from  ill-smelling  powders  to 
those  that  have  no  odor.  No  advantage  is  gained  by 
using  either  poisonous  or  offensive  smelling  powders 
to  kill  the  parasites  of  poultry,  and  they  are  dangerous 
both  to  the  poultry  and  the  person  applying  them. 

Some  of  the  many  kinds  of  insect  powders  are  men- 
tioned and  briefly  described  here  because  one  or  more  of 
them  can  be  found  in  any  locality.  The  powders 
described  do  not  include  those  that  are  specially  pre- 
pared and  sold  in  packages  under  a  trade  name.  Any 
of  the  following  powders  may  safely  be  used  for  dusting 
on  poultry  of  all  kinds. 

Aniseed  powder  is  made  from  the  seed  of  the  anise 
plant,  which  grows  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  This 
powder  is  suitable  for  use  about  young  chicks,  poults, 
ducklings,  and  goslings. 

Pyrethrum  powder  is  also  commonly  known  as  Persian 
or  Dalmatian  insect  powder  and  as  Buhach.  It  is  usually 
sold  by  the  pound  in  drug  stores.  This  powder  is  com- 
monly made  from  the  dry  flowers  of  certain  species  of 
chrysanthemums  which  are  grown  in  Persia,  Dalmatia, 
and  neighboring  lands,  and  in  California.  When  pure, 
this  powder  is  one  of  the  very  best  powders  that  can  be 
used  for  dusting  into  the  plumage  of  fowls,  both  old 
and  young. 

Fine  tobacco  dust,  which  is  a  refuse  from  tobacco  facto- 
ries, is  an  effective  insecticide.  It  is  suitable  for 
dusting  into  nests,  and  will  destroy  body  lice.  Tobacco 
dust  has  the  disadvantage  that  it  will  stick  to  the  skin 
of  the  fowls.  It  also  has  a  disagreeable  odor,  which 
is  intensified  by  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  bodies 
of  the  birds. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       167 

Stavesacre  seed  powder  is  made  from  the  seed  of  a 
species  of  larkspur  that  grows  in  Southern  Europe.  It  is 
a  poisonous  substance,  and  delphinin,  a  poisonous  drug,  is 
made  from  this  seed.  When  fine,  this  powder  is  a  good 
insecticide. 

Dry.  air-slaked  lime  makes  an  effective  insect  powder 
on  account  of  its  extreme  fineness. 

Road  dust  will  answer  as  an  insecticide  when  used 
alone,  provided  it  is  very  fine.  It  is  also  used  as  a 
base  to  mix  with  finely  ground  powders  to  make  insecti- 
cides. To  make  sure  that  road  dust  is  fine  enough  to 
be  valuable  as  an  insecticide,  it  should  be  passed 
through  a  very  fine 
sieve,  similar  to  that 
used  by  druggists  for 
separating  the  coarser 
from  the  finer  par- 
ticles in  a  powder. 

Compound  insect  pow- 
ders composed  as  fol- 
lows will  be  found 
effective: 

1.  Fine  road  dust 
that    has    been    care- 
fully sieved  and  mixed 

with   an   equal   quan-  LEGHORNS 

tity      of      Pyrethrum 
powder.     This  will  be  very  effective  provided  the  Pyreth- 
rum powder  is  pure  and  the  road  dust  very  fine. 

2.  Equal   parts   of   air-slaked   lime,    tobacco    dust,    and 
fine   dust  from   coal   ashes.     If  very   fine   and  dry,   this 
mixture    will    be    suitable   for    dusting    into    nest   boxes 
or  on  the  bodies  of  fowls.     It  may,  however,  adhere  to 
the  bodies  of  the  fowls  and  cause  irritation. 

Liquid  Insecticides.— Liquid  insecticides  are  more  ef- 
fective for  application  to  the  interior  of  poultry  buildings 
than  powder  insecticides,  for  the  reason  that  they  can  be 
sprayed  into  all  the  cracks  and  crevices.  When 
thoroughly  applied,  a  good  liquid  insecticide  will  rid 


168       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

a  house  of  practically  all  the  parasites  that  are  in  it. 
Some  insects  such  as  red  mites  can  conveniently  be 
exterminated  only  by  the  use  of  liquid  insecticides. 
When  liquid  insecticides  of  any  kind  are  used  as  either 
a  spray  or  a-  paint,  on  poultry  buildings,  they  should  be 
allowed  to  soak  into  the  wood  and  dry  thoroughly  be- 
fore the  fowls  are  permitted  to  go  inside  of  the  building. 
Liquid  insecticides  of  some  kinds  may  also  be  applied 
to  the  bodies  of  poultry. 

Some  liquid  insecticides  are  applied  by  themselves 
without  dilution  or  combination  with  any  other  material; 
in  the  form  of  an  emulsion  with  other  liquids;  or  with 
other  materials  in  solution  in  them.  A  description  of 
the  principal  liquid  insecticides  in  use  at  the  present 
time  follows: 

Creosote  is  widely  used  as  an  insecticide.  It  is  also 
known  in  some  localities  as  crude  carbolic  acid  and  as 
creosote  stain.  Creosote  is  a  coal-tar  product.  It  is  not 
an  expensive  material  and  is  usually  sold  in  paint 
stores.  In  large  quantities  it  can  be  purchased  at  from 
40c.  to  50c.  per  gal.,  and  in  small  quantities  at  from  80c. 
to  $1  per  gal.  Creosote  is  used  for  shingle  stains  and 
as  a  wood  preservative  for  many  other  kinds  of  wood- 
work. If  it  is  desired  to  color  the  inside  or  outside 
of  the  houses  to  which  creosote  is  to  be  applied,  dry 
paint  can  be  added  to  it.  Creosote  is  the  best  liquid 
insecticide  for  spraying  on  the  interior  of  poultry  houses. 
Two  or  three  applications  of  this  material  will  rid  any 
building  or  coop  of  insect  vermin  of  all  kinds. 

Creosote  bought  at  different  times  and  in  different 
places  will  not  always  be  of  the  same  viscosity  or 
thickness.  When  very  thick  it  may  need  to  be  diluted 
in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  creosote  to  from  3  to  4 
parts  of  kerosene  oil,  in  order  to  get  it  in  the  proper 
condition  for  spraying.  Thinner  samples  of  creosote  may 
need  to  be  diluted  with  only  2  parts  of  kerosene  oil  to 
make  it  suitable  for  spraying.  For  painting  roost  poles 
and  nest  boxes,  the  thinner  kind  of  creosote  is  commonly 
used  without  any  dilution;  the  thicker  kind  is  usually 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       169 

diluted  with  2  parts  of  kerosene  oil  when  used  for  this 
purpose.  Roost  poles  may  also  be  satisfactorily  painted 
with  a  wash  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  creosote  and 
hot  water.  When  roost  poles  and  nest  boxes  are  treated 
with  this  mixture,  they  should  be  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  sun  before  being  put  back  in  the  house;  when  the 
roost  poles  are  put  back  in  the  house  their  ends  should 
be  painted  with  a  coat  of  the  undiluted  thick  creosote.  A 
mixture  of  2l/2  gal.  of  creosote,  2^  gal.  of  water,  and  1  Ib. 
of  washing  soda  will  also  make  an  effective  wash  for 
nests,  roosts,  and  brood  coops.  If  this  is  used  hot  and 
applied  in  a  spray,  its  effectiveness  will  be  increased. 

After  a  house  has  been  thoroughly  freed  of  parasites, 
the  roost  poles  and  the  interior  of  the  nest  boxes  should 
be  coated  with  one  of  the  above  mixtures  of  creosote 
once  a  week  for  a  month,  and  occasionally  thereafter. 
This  work  should  always  be  done  before  noon  so  that 
the  creosote  will  have  time  to  dry  before  night. 

Crude  petroleum  is  an  inflammable  oily  liquid  from 
which  a  number  of  other  oils  that  are  used  for  com- 
mercial purposes  are  obtained  by  processes  of  refining. 
It  is  also  called  coal  oil,  earth  oil,  mineral  oil,  natural 
oil,  rock  oil,  and  Seneca  oil.  Crude  petroleum  is  a  dark 
brown  to  greenish  liquid. 

Kerosene  is  an  inflammable  oil  distilled  from  crude 
petroleum  or  any  mineral  hydrocarbon.  Kerosene  is 
suitable  for  spraying  the  interior  of  poultry  houces,  but 
is  not  well  suited  for  applying  to  the  bodies  of  fowls. 
Inflamed  eyes,  blisters,  and  sore  spots  on  the  skin 
will  result  when  kerosone  is  applied  direct.  It  is  abso- 
lutely unfit  to  use  on  the  bodies  of  young  chicks. 

Benzine  is  a  colorless,  inflammable,  and  volatile  liquid 
obtained  from  distillation  of  crude  petroleum.  While 
it  is  often  used  as  an  insecticide,  it  is  dangerous  to 
handle  because  of  its  inflammability. 

Gasoline  is  also  a  colorless,  volatile,  and  inflammable 
liquid  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  crude  petroleum. 
It  is  dangerous  to  handle  for  the  same  reason  that 
benzine  is  dangerous. 


170      ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Turpentine  is  a  product  of  such  trees  as  the  pine  and 
other  similar  trees.  It  is  much  used  in  the  making  of 
paints  and  varnishes  and  also  in  medicine.  It  is  in- 
flammable and  will  irritate  the  skin. 

Crcoline,  a  liquid  manufactured  especially  for  use  as 
an  insecticide,  is  effective  in  killing  the  insect  enemies 
of  poultry.  Crecline  may  be  used  in  the  interior  of 
poultry  houses  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  3  fluid  oz. 
of  creoline  to  1  gal.  of  water. 

Carbolic  acid  is  largely  used  in  the  destruction  of 
poultry  parasites.  A  solution  made  of  V/z  fluid  oz.  of 
carbolic  acid  to  1  gal.  of  water  is  strong  enough  for 
this  purpose.  Carbolic  acid  is  sometimes  added  to  white- 
wash so  that  sanitary  conditions  can  be  improved  at 
the  same  time  that  an  insecticide  is  applied.  When 
used  in  this  way,  however,  carbolic  acid  does  not  have 
as  effective  insecticidal  properties  as  when  it  is  used 
without  whitewash. 

Milk  emulsion  is  usually  first  made  up  in  a  concen- 
trated or  stock  solution,  or  cream  solution  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  and  then  diluted  just  before  it  is 
applied.  To  make  the  stock  solution,  add  2  gal.  of 
kerosene  to  1  gal.  of  milk  and  churn  or  mix  thoroughly 
with  a  force  pump  or  other  agitator.  This  stock  solution 
should  be  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  1  gal.  of  the  stock 
solution  to  4  gal.  of  warm  water.  Crude  petroleum, 
benzine,  gasoline.,  or  turpentine  may  be  substituted  for 
kerosene  in  this  formula.  Kerosene,  however,  can  usu- 
ally be  purchased  cheaper  than  the  other  liquids  except 
crude  petroleum. 

Soap  emulsion  is  also  usually  first  made  up  in  a  stock 
solution  and  then  diluted  just  before  it  is  to  be  applied. 
To  make  a  stock  solution  of  soap  emulsion,  dissolve  1  Ib. 
of  hard  soap  in  1  gal.  of  hot  water;  when  the  soap  has 
all  dissolved  and  while  the  solution  is  hot,  add  2  gal. 
of  kerosene;  mix  thoroughly  with  a  force  pump  or  an 
agitator  of  some  kind.  When  to  be  used  for  spraying 
the  interior  of  poultry  houses,  this  stock  solution  should 
be  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  1  gal.  of  the  stock  solution 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       171 

to  4  gal.  of  water.  Crude  petroleum,  benzine,  gasoline, 
or  turpentine  may  be  substituted  for  kerosene  in  this 
formula  also. 

Liquid  lice  killer  is  a  name  frequently  applied  to  an 
insecticide  made  from  kerosene  oil  and  powdered  naph- 
thalene flakes  or  balls,  in  the  proportion  of  2  Ib.  of 
naphthalene  to  1  gal.  of  kerosene.  The  can  containing 
this  solution  should  be  covered  so  that  the  liquid  will 
not  leak  out  of  it,  and  the  solution  should  be  agitated 
frequently  by  shaking.  The  solution  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  in  this  can  about  a  week,  when  it  should  be 
poured  into  another  receptacle,  so  that  another  batch 
can  be  mixed  if  necessary.  If  2  fluid  oz.  of  creoline  or 
of  creosote  are  added  to  the  clear  solution,  the  effective- 
ness of  the  solution  will  be  improved.  The  cans  con- 
taining this  solution  should  be  kept  in  a  temperature 
that  never  goes  below  40°  F.  or  the  naphthalene  will 
go  out  of  solution  and  appear  in  flakes.  The  solution 
should  be  kept  for  about  24  hr.  in  a  warm  place  before 
it  is  used,  so  that  it  will  be  at  about  70°  to  80°  F. 
when  it  is  applied.  This  solution  should  never  be  kept 
close  to  a  fire,  nor  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  heat 
it  over  or  near  a  fire,  as  it  is  inflammable.  This  liquid 
lice  killer  may  be  used  for  either  painting  or  spraying 
the  interior  of  poultry  houses  and  brood  coops. 

Compound  liquid  insecticides  made  up  according  to  the 
following  formulas  may  be  used  with  safety  on  the 
bodies  of  young  chicks:  1  oz.  of  oil  of  sassafras  to  2  or 
3  oz.  of  sweet  oil;  1  oz.  of  oil  of  aniseed  to  3  oz.  of  sweet 
oil. 

Lard  can  also  be  rubbed  on  the  heads  and  throats  of 
young  chicks  for  use  as  an  insecticide. 

Whitewash  is  not  effective  as  an  insecticide  unless  it 
is  mixed  with  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  V/t 
fluid  oz.  of  carbolic  acid  to  1  gal.  of  whitewash.  Even 
when  containing  carbolic  acid,  however,  it  cannot  be 
depended  on  to  kill  mites.  If  applied  hot,  the  effective- 
ness of  this  mixture  will  be  increased.  Whitewash 
applied  by  itself  will  not  kill  insects  unless  it  happens 


172       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

to  so  completely  cover  them  that  the  creatures  will 
drown  in  it.  Whitewash  can  be  recommended  to  help 
maintain  sanitary  conditions  about  a  poultry  house, 
but  unfortunately  when  it  is  used  it  often  gives  the 
poultryman  a  false  sense  of  security  against  parasites 
and  frequently  causes  him  to  neglect  the  proper  measures 
to  exterminate  the  insect  enemies  of  his  poultry. 

Fume  Insecticides.— Fume  insecticides  are  produced  by 
burning  various  substances.  Fumes  that  are  extremely 
poisonous  should  not  be  used  for  killing  poultry  para- 
sites, as  there  is  no  necessity  for  their  use,  and  persons, 
animals,  and  the  poultry  may  be  accidentally  exposed 
to  them.  The  following  can  be  recommended  as  effective 
on  parasites,  and  not  necessarily  fatal  to  other  creatures 
if  inhaled  in  small  quantities,  though  they  will  prove 
fatal  to  any  person,  animal,  or  bird  if  inhaled  in  suf- 
ficient quantities: 

Sulphur  fumes  can  be  produced  by  burning  sulphur. 
Either  lump  sulphur,  which  is  frequently  called  brim- 
stone, sulphur  candles,  or  powdered  sulphur  can  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  powdered  sulphur  will  produce 
fumes  more  rapidly  than  the  lump  sulphur.  The  sulphur 
should  be  placed  in  an  iron  pot  or  pan  to  avoid  fire 
and  should  be  moistened  with  some  inflammable  liquid  to 
make  it  burn  more  freely. 

Tobacco  fumes  may  be  produced  by  burning  any  kind 
of  tobacco.  Such  fumes  are  usually  produced  by  burning 
the  waste  leaves  or  stems  of  the  tobacco  plant,  as  these 
can  be  purchased  cheaply.  The  tobacco  stems  or  leaves 
should  be  placed  in  an  iron  receptacle  of  some  kind 
to  avoid  the  danger  from  fire  and  should  also  be  moist- 
ened with  some  inflammable  liquid  to  make  them  burn 
quickly. 

Creosote  fumes  or  liquid  lice-killer  fumes  are  sometimes 
used  for  killing  the  parasites  on  a  few  fowls  confined  in 
a  small  space.  This  treatment  is  difficult  to  perform  and 
dangerous  to  use. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       173 


INSTRUMENTS  FOR  APPLYING  INSECTICIDES 
Powder  Guns.— Insect  powders  can  be  applied  by  hand, 

but    they    are    more    effectively    applied    by    the    use    of 

powder  guns.     A  small  pow- 
der gun  is  shown  in  Fig.   1. 

This  will  answer  when  only 

a     few     fowls     are     to     be 

dusted,  but  where  there  are 

a   large   number  of  fowls   to 

dust,    a    larger    powder    gun 

will  be  required.     A  bellows 

powder   gun   is   shown   in   Fig.    2. 


FIG.  1 
With   this   it   will   be 


FIG.  2 

possible  to  dust  a  large  number  of  fowls  in  a  short 
time.  This  can  be  used  at  night  by  going  about  amorig  the 
fowls  and  quietly  inserting  the  point  of  the  gun  among 
the  feathers  of  the  fowls  while  on  the  roost,  and  in  this 
way  dust  them  thoroughly. 

Sprayers.— Liquid  insecticides  can  be  most  effectively 
and  economically  applied  in  spray  form.  Where  there 
is  only  a  small  surface  to  go  over,  a  small  hand-spraying 
outfit  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  3  will  answer. 

Where  a  large  amount 
of  surface  has  to  be 
covered,  a  spraying 
outfit  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  4  will  be 
found  more  conve- 

pIG    3  nient.   There  are  many 

makes  of  these  com- 
pressed-air sprayers  on  the  market.  Those  with  gal- 
vanized-iron  receptacles  for  the  liquid  will  answer  for 


174       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

spraying  insecticides  but  will  not  prove  satisfactory  for 
spraying  Bordeaux  mixture  on  plants.  By  using  spray 
pumps  to  apply  insecticides,  a  large  quantity  of  liquid 
is  saved  as  compared  with  applying  them  by  means 
of  a  brush,  and  the  insecticide  is 
ft!//////*.  also  applied  more  effectively. 
When  applied  in  a  fine  spray,  it 
penetrates  into  the  cracks  and 
crevices  in  the  building  and 
forms  an  even  covering  over  the 
flat  surfaces. 


KILLING  OF  PARASITES 

A  constant  watch  must  be  kept 
for    parasites,    because    from    the 
moment     chicks     come     from     the 
shell  they  are  menaced  by  insect 
pIG   4  vermin.     The   most   practical   way 

of    meeting    the    problem    is    con- 
tinually  to  practice  preventive  measures. 

If  poultry  parasites  are  allowed  to  become  numerous 
they  will  sap  the  vitality  of  the  fowls,  and  although  the 
parasites  themselves  may  be  gotten  rid  of,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  restore  the  physical  condition  of  the  fowls. 
For  application  to  poultry  houses,  liquid  and  fume  in- 
secticides are  most  effective,  but  usually  liquid  insecti- 
cides are  the  more  convenient  to  apply.  Powder 
insecticides  are  ordinarily  effective  on  the  bodies  of 
fowls,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  will  not 
kill  all  classes  of  parasites. 

Houses  that  are  maintained  in  a  cleanly  condition, 
well  lighted  with  sunlight,  and  free  from  dampness  will 
never  be  badly  infested  with  parasites,  if  they  are  given 
regular  sprayings  with  some  good  liquid  insecticide. 
Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  sanitary  conditions  as  a 
preventive  measure,  but  sanitary  conditions  combined 
with  regular  spraying  is  most  effective. 

Prevention  of  Infestation  by  Fowls  From  Other  Flocks. 
To  avoid  the  chance  of  carrying  parasites  into  a  house 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       175 

or  to  a  flock  that  is  free  from  parasites,  all  fowls  brought 
in  from  other  flocks  should  be  kept  in  a  sort  of  quaran- 
tine by  themselves  and  specially  treated  for  a  number 
of  days.  The  place  of  quarantine  should  be  a  small 
coop  or  cage  that  is  free  from  parasites.  For  a  period 
of  about  10  da.  some  effective  powder  insecticide 
should  be  frequently  dusted  into  the  feathers  of  such 
fowls.  To  do  this,  the  fowl  should  be  held  in  one  hand 
by  the  shanks,  with  the  head  hanging  down,  and  the 
insect  powder  should  be  worked  into  the  feathers  of 
every  part  of  the  body  and  down  on  to  the  skin  with  the 
fingers  of  the  other  hand.  In  especially  bad  cases,  a 
thorough  washing  should  follow  this  dusting. 

Method  of  Ridding  a  Poultry  House  of  Parasites.— The 
thorough  cleaning  of  a  poultry  house  that  has  become 
badly  infested  with  parasites  is  a  difficult  problem  and 
drastic  measures  are  required.  If  the  building  is  a 
cheap  affair,  like  a  small  coop,  it  is  often  best  to  burn 
it,  but  burning  would  be  too  expensive  in  the  case  of 
a  large  poultry  house.  Before  attempting  to  clean  a 
poultry  house,  all  the  fowls  should  be  removed  to  other 
quarters,  dusted  with  insect  powder  and  kept  by  them- 
selves until  the  house  cleaning  is  completed.  To  get  a 
badly  infested  poultry  house  in  good  sanitary  condition 
and  free  from  parasites  will  require  several  days.  The 
following  treatment  will  be  found  effective,  but  in 
exceptionally  bad  cases  a  repetition  of  the  treatment 
may  be  necessary. 

1.  The  house  should  be  thoroughly  fumigated.  After 
removing  the  poultry,  stop  up  every  crack  and  crevice, 
so  that  the  fumes  will  not  escape.  A  number  of  sub- 
stances can  be  used  for  fumigation,  but  sulphur  and 
tobacco  are  the  ones  that  can  be  recommended.  If 
either  of  these  are  used  they  should  be  burned  in  some 
metallic  receptacle  such  as  an  iron  pot  or  kettle,  to 
avoid  fire.  If  these  substances  are  moistened  with 
some  inflammable  material  they  will  burn  more  freely. 
Whatever  material  is  burned  to  produce  the  fumes, 
enough  of  it  should  be  used  so  that  the  interior  of  the 


176      ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

building    will    be    filled    with    enough    fumes    to    darken 
it.    The  building  should  be  kept  tightly  closed  for  24  hr. 

2.  The    interior   of   the   house    should   be    dusted   with 
dry   air-slaked  lime.     To   do   this   a   person   should  take 
a   bucket,  bag,   or  pailful   of  the   fine   lime   and  start   at 
the  end  of  the  house  farthest  from  the  door,   and  walk 
slowly   backwards  toward  the   door,   scattering  the   lime 
with  the  right  hand  in  the  same  way  that  seed  is  sown. 
The    lime    should    be    thrown    against    the    ceiling,    side 
walls,  nest  boxes,  roosting  places,  etc.     The  air  should 
be    filled   with   a   cloud   of   lime    dust.     This    dust   will 
settle    gradually    into    every    crack    and    crevice    of    the 
house.    While  the  lime  dust  is  being  scattered,  the  house 
should  be   closed  as  tightly   as  possible.     About  a  half 
bushel  of  lime  dust  will  answer  for  a  poultry  house  20 
ft.   wide   and  40  to  50  ft.   long.     A  thin  cloth  that  the 
operator  can  see  through  should  be  tied  over  the  eyes, 
nose,   and  mouth  to  prevent  the  lime  dust  from  getting 
into    them.     Any   parasites   that   may   have   escaped   the 
fumes   of  the   sulphur  or  tobacco  will   more   than   likely 
be    killed    by    the    lime    dust.      The    house    should    be 
closed  again  for  24  hr.  to  allow  the  lime  dust  to  settle 
thoroughly. 

3.  The  house  should  then  be  brushed  or  swept  clean. 
The  ceiling,  walls,  floor,  and  every  appliance  and  fixture 
inside  the  house  should  be  carefully  brushed.     No  dust 
or  dirt  should  be  left.     The  straw  from  the  nest  boxes, 
and  the   straw  and  dirt  from  the  floor  should  be  taken 
outside,    saturated    with    kerosene,    and    burned.    After 
all  that  will  burn  has  been  burned,  the  rest  should  be 
buried  deep  in  the  ground. 

4.  The    house    should    be    thoroughly    sprayed    both 
inside    and    out    with    one    of    the    liquid    insecticides 
described.      Creosote    and    liquid    lice    killer    are    to    be 
preferred,    in   the   order   named.     The   liquid   insecticide 
applied  at  this  time  should  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 

5.  A     second     application     of     the     liquid     insecticide 
should  be  made   to   the   interior  of  the  house,   the   nest 
boxes,  and  roosting  poles  before  the  fowls  are  allowed 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       177 

to  return.  This  application  should  be  made  on  the 
morning  of  the  day  the  fowls  are  to  be  returned  to 
the  house;  after  the  liquid  has  dried  sufficiently,  fresh 
straw  should  be  placed  in  the  nest  boxes. 

6.  The  fowls  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  insect 
powder   immediately   before   they   are   allowed  to   return 
to  the  house.     They  should  be  returned  to  the  house  at 
dusk  with  the  powder  in  their  feathers  so  that  they  can 
roost  the  first  night  without  shaking  out  the  powder. 

7.  Sanitary  conditions  must  be  maintained  continually 
in  the  house  and  a  strict  watch  must  be  kept  for  the 
appearance   of   parasites,   both   on   the   fowls   and   about 
the  house.    If  this  is  not  done  the  house  is  likely  to  be 
reinfested  with  parasites.     If  parasites  appear  the  house 
should   be    thoroughly    cleaned   and    sprayed    again.     To 
maintain  cleanliness   the   interior  of   the   buildings,   the 
side    walls,    ceilings,    roosting    places,    nest    boxes,    etc. 
should   be   brushed   frequently   with    a   stiff   broom,   and 
all  filth  should  be  systematically  removed  from  the  floor 
before  it  has  a  chance  to  accumulate  in  any  quantity. 

ANIMALS   DESTRUCTIVE   TO   POULTRY 

Nearly  all  flesh-eating  animals  attack  poultry  when  the 
occasion  offers.  The  animals  that  do  the  most  harm  to 
the  average  poultry  flock  are  wildcats,  raccoons,  opos- 
sums, skunks,  weasels,  minks,  rats,  dogs,  and  cats.  It 
is  said  that  the  tiger  of  India  and  the  smaller  mem- 
bers of  the  feline  family  hunt  the  peafowl  and  the 
pheasant.  Where  foxes  are  found  in  the  neighborhood 
they  will  also  attack  poultry.  The  great  proportion  of 
animals  destructive  to  poultry  hunt  by  night,  and  hence 
if  all  openings  in  the  poultry  houses  are  closed  with 
wire  netting,  practically  all  of  the  animals  most  likely 
to  attack  would  be  excluded. 

For  the  capture  or  destruction  of  animals  destructive  to 
poultry  the  usual  spring  and  box  traps  are  used. 


178      ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

BIRDS   DESTRUCTIVE   TO   POULTRY 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  just  which  birds  are  de- 
structive to  poultry,  because  many  birds  that  live  on 
rodents,  such  as  field  mice,  rats,  etc.,  will  attack  poultry 
when  short  of  other  food.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
birds  are  not  very  destructive  to  poultry,  because  even 
the  birds  that  attack  domestic  fowls  the  most  frequently 
come  far  from  being  the  worst  enemies  of  poultry.  One 
rat,  for  instance,  will  often  destroy  more  chicks  in 
a  single  night  than  a  pair  of  hawks  will  carry  off  in  a 
month,  and  the  insect  enemies  of  poultry  do  more  dam- 
age than  all  other  agencies  combined. 

Falcons,  hawks,  and  owls  are  the  principal  birds  of 
prey  that  attack  poultry  and  may  be  separated  into 
four  classes,  grading  from  the  least  destructive  to  the 
most  destructive  as  follows: 

The  hawks  and  owls  least  destructive  to  poultry  are: 

1.  The    large    rough-legged   hawk,    the    squirrel    hawk, 
and    the    white-tailed,    Mississippi,    swallow-tailed,    and 
English  kites.    These  birds  will  not  disturb  or  hunt  for 
poultry  so  long  as  they  can  find  a   satisfactory  supply 
of  other  food  to  supply  their  wants.    They  are  generally 
considered  as  being  entirely  beneficial  to  mankind. 

2.  According  to  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  the  majority  of  hawks 
and  owls  are  usually  beneficial  to  mankind,  but  will  often 
kill  poultry  when  the  occasion  offers.     He  names  the  fol- 
lowing as  belonging  to  this  class:     Marsh  hawk,  Harris's 
hawk,    red-tailed   hawk,    short-tailed    hawk,    white-tailed 
hawk,    red-shouldered    hawk.       Swainson's    hawk,    short- 
winged  hawk,  broad-winged  hawk,  Mexican  black  hawk, 
Mexican   goshawk,    sparrow   hawk,   barn   owl,   long-eared 
and  short-eared  owls,  great  gray  owl,  western  owl,  Rich- 
ardson's  owl,   screech   owl,    snowy   owl,   hawk   owl,   and 
other  smaller  species. 

3.  Fisher   also    classes    the    following    birds    as    doing 
about  as  much  good  by  destroying  other  creatures  as  they 
do    harm    by    destroying    poultry:      Golden    eagle,    bald 
eagle,  pigeon  hawk,  Richardson's  hawk,  falcons,  and  the 
great  horned  owl. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       179 

4.  Birds  that  are  very  destructive  to  poultry  and  not 
of  much  benefit  through  destroying  other  creatures  are: 
Gray  falcon,  duck  hawk,  sharp-shinned  hawk,  Cooper's 
hawk,  and  goshawk. 

The  birds  that  are  classed  as  least  destructive  to 
poultry  subsist  almost  entirely  on  rodents  that  destroy 
field  crops  and  trees,  but  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
they  prefer  this  kind  of  food  they  cannot  be  trusted 
where  young  chicks  are  being  raised.  Under  starv- 
ing conditions  all  of 
these  birds  will  kill 
the  young  of  chick- 
ens, turkeys,  and  wa- 
ter fowls.  The  spar- 
row hawk,  the  small- 
est and  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  above 
birds,  lives  almost 
entirely  on  insects 
and  field  mice,  but 
will,  if  tempted  by 
their  presence,  kill 
young  chicks. 

In  addition  to  the 
above  birds,  ravens, 
blackbirds,  and 
crows  will  destroy  WHITE  MINORCA 

young  poultry.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  raven  and  the 
crow  to  fly  away  with  chicks  that,  are  2  or  3  wk.  old. 
This,  however,  will  occur  only  where  the  poultry  have 
the  range  of  the  farm  near  the  nesting  places  of  these 
birds. 

Well-built  houses  are  a  good  protection  against  birds 
of  prey.  Scarecrows  and  hawk  traps  are  also  sometimes 
effective.  The  presence  of  a  few  guinea  fowls  and  a 
well-trained  dog  will  often  keep  a  fair-sized  farm  free 
from  birds  of  prey.  Neither  guinea  fowls  nor  dogs  will 
do  any  harm  to  birds  of  prey,  but  the  guinea  fowls  will 
make  a  loud  outcry  whenever  birds  of  prey  appear,  and 


180       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

the  dog  that  is  trained  for  the  purpose  will  bark  at  the 
noise  and  will  chase  the  birds  of  prey  away. 


DISEASES 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

A  disease  is  any  derangement  of  a  living  organism,  but 
the  term  ailment  is  usually  applied  to  slight  disorders. 
Though  there  are  many  diseases  of  poultry,  and  some 
serious  ones,  comparatively  few  fowls  are  diseased,  when 
the  large  numbers  of  fowls  in  the  country  are  considered, 
and  poultry  that  is  kept  in  sanitary  quarters  and  has 
proper  food  is  the  least  likely  to  become  diseased. 
Hence,  the  importance  of  preventive  measures. 

Poultry  in  poor  health  will  exhibit  a  dull,  sluggish, 
and  listless  appearance,  which  is  the  strongest  evidence 
of  a  lack  of  vitality,  and  will  go  to  roost  early  and 
remain  there  in  the  morning  until  long  after  the  other 
fowls  are  out  looking  for  food.  When  they  do  leave 
the  roosts  they  will  walk  about  as  if  they  were  not 
strong  enough  to  drag  their  legs  and  feet  after  them. 
Fowls  in  poor  health  will  have  a  bloodless  appearance, 
will  have  an  absence  of  healthy  brightness  in  their 
eyes,  faces,  combs,  and  wattles,  and  will  show  a  general 
lack  of  condition,  which  is  always  accompanied  by  a 
lack  of  appetite  and  a  failure  to  assimilate  properly  the 
food  they  eat.  Hens  in  poor  health  will  lay  but  few 
eggs.  Whenever  fowls  have  had  their  vitality  reduced 
so  that  they  exhibit  the  symptoms  described  they  will  be 
susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  all  kinds  of  diseases. 

There  are  few  symptoms  that  are  of  practical  value 
in  the  diagnosis  of  the  diseases  of  poultry,  for  the  reason 
that  many  symptoms  are  common  to  several  different 
diseases.  A  few  general  symptoms  are,  however,  of 
value.  Fowls  that  are  diseased  become  listless;  they  are 
inclined  to  stay  apart  from  other  fowls,  and  will  stand 
in  out-of-the-way  places  or  beside  a  fence  sunning 
themselves,  their  heads  hanging  and  their  feathers 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       181 

ruffled.  It  is  natural  for  fowls  to  sun  themselves,  but 
there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  healthy  fowl 
basking  in  the  sun  for  recreation  and  the  sick  fowl 
standing  there  in  the  hope  of  warming  its  body.  Dis- 
ease in  poultry  is  always  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  appe- 
tite and  generally  by  frequent  voidance  of  the  bowels. 

The  temperature  of  normal  fowls  ranges  from  106°  to 
107.5°  F.,  but  the  temperature  of  fowls  is  rarely  taken, 
chilliness  being  usually  accepted  as  an  indication  of 
fever.  The  heart  beat  of  fowls  is  quite  rapid,  varying 
from  110  to  140  per  minute.  The  rapidity,  however,  is  not 
of  so  much  importance  as  the  regularity.  The  normal 
breathing  rate  of  fowls  is  from  50  to  60  respirations  per 
minute.  When  the  respiratory  organs  are  diseased,  the 
respirations  are  quickened.  The  regularity  or  irregular- 
ity of  the  heart  beat  or  of  respiration  will  be  plainly 
heard  if  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  backbone  or  the 
ribs. 

Preventive  measures  are  the  best  treatment  for  poultry 
troubles.  The  fowls  should  be  handled  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  contract  as  few  diseases  as  possible,  and 
the  slightest  ailment  should  be  treated  before  it  has  a 
chance  to  gain  headway.  This  requires  constant  attention, 
but  this  is  the  only  way  to  success. 

None  but  very  simple  treatment  is  ordinarily  neces- 
sary for  poultry,  and  any  ailment  that  will  not  yield 
readily  to  simple  treatment  is  usually  so  serious  that 
even  if  a  fowl  is  enabled  to  recover  from  it,  the  results 
will  not  be  satisfactory,  for  the  vitality  of  the  fowl 
will  be  seriously  impaired.  Hence,  the  practical  poultry- 
man,  except  in  the  case  of  particularly  valuable  fowls, 
usually  kills  any  ailing  fowls  that  do  not  recover  quickly 
from  simple  treatment. 

Medicine  is  most  satisfactorily  administered  to  a 
flock  of  fowls  by  being  fed  mixed  in  a  warm  or  slightly 
warm  mash.  Pills  are  usually  the  most  convenient 
form  in  which  to  administer  medicine  to  individual 
fowls.  When  liquids  are  poured  down  a  fowl's  throat 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  strangulation. 


182       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF   TREATMENT 

There  are  a  few  fundamental  principles  of  treatment 
that  it  would  be  well  for  every  poultryman  to  have 
continually  in  his  mind.  Morse's  maxims  cover  this 
ground  so  well  that  they  are  given  here: 

"Clean  out  by  means  of  Epsom  salts,  administered  in 
an  evening  mash,  estimating  one-third  of  a  teaspoonful 
to  each  adult  bird.  When  disease  is  raging  this  may  be 
practiced  with  the  sick  two  or  three  times  a  week  until 
there  is  an  abatement  of  the  outbreak.  Even  the  well 
birds  should  receive  one  such  dose  at  the  beginning 
of  an  outbreak  of  disease.  After  disease  has  swept 
through  a  flock,  until  one  is  certain  that  it  has  been 
entirely  eradicated,  it  is  well  to  give  the  flock  at 
least  one  dose  monthly  during  the  cooler  weather  and 
twice  a  month  during  the  heated  term. 

"Clean  up  the  poultry  houses  by  sprinkling  powdered, 
air-slaked  lime  over  the  runs,  dropping-boards,  and 
floors.  This  should  be  practiced  at  the  time  of  giving 
the  salts,  as  the  lime  will  destroy  the  parasites  that 
are  deposited  in  the  droppings. 

"Clean  the  water  supply  by  adding  to  the  drinking 
water  enough  permanganate  of  potash  to  turn  the  water 
a  claret  red;  that  would  ordinarily  be  as  much  as  you 
can  spread  on  a  silver  lOc.  piece  to  the  gallon  of 
water.  Instead  of  this,  iron  sulphate  may  be  added  in 
the  proportion  of  10  gr.  to  1  gal.  of  water.  Or, 
instead  of  either,  1  teaspoonful  of  strong  carbolic  acid 
(not  crude)  may  be  added  to  1  gal.  of  water.  This  should 
be  practiced  constantly  during  the  prevalence  of  disease. 
Healthy  fowls  not  threatened  with  disease  do  not  need  it. 

"Clean  eggs  by  dipping  them  in  90%  alcohol,  just 
before  placing  them  in  the  incubator.  Instead  of  the 
alcohol,  a  3%  solution  of  some  good  coal-tar  disin- 
fectant may  be  used,  with  this  exception,  that  instead  of 
dipping,  as  in  the  use  of  alcohol,  they  should  be  wiped 
with  the  coal-tar  disinfectant.  The  purpose  of  this  rule 
is  to  remove  from  the  shell  of  the  egg  the  various 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       183 

contaminating  microbes  that  are  deposited  on  the  shell 
in  its  passage  through  the  cloaca. 

"By  all  means  furnish  your  poultry  with  nothing  but 
clean  food.  Moldy  food  is  certain  to  produce  disease 
and  death.  However,  circumstances  sometimes  arise  in 
which  it  appears  impossible  to  avoid  the  use  of  food 
that  has  been  exposed  to  the  conditions  favorable  to  the 
production  of  mold.  In  such  circumstances,  destroy  the 
mold  by  the  application  of  strong  heat.  Do  not  think 
that  this  suggestion  is  a  happy  thought  to  permit  you 
to  lessen  your  expenses  by  buying  seconds,  thirds,  etc. 
in  the  feed  line.  If  you  practice  it,  it  will  be  to  your 
certain  loss.  An  emergency  suggestion  is  never  a  rule 
to  be  regularly  carried  out. 

"Clean  incubators  and  brooders  by  thoroughly  scrub- 
bing them  with  hot  water  and  common  soap.  This 
practice,  alone,  has  helped  to  cut  down  the  cases  of 
white  diarrhea  and  brooder  pneumonia.  Having  once  used 
the  incubators  and  brooders,  remember  that  danger,  dis- 
ease, and  death  lurk  in  them  until  they  are  disinfected. 

"Breed  from  the  youngest  females  consistent  with  the 
needs  of  good  breeding.  Investigators  have  recently 
shown  that  there  are  fewer  cases  of  egg  infection  by 
bacteria  in  the  eggs  that  come  from  virgin  pullets.  A 
study  of  the  anatomy  of  fowls  and  the  physiology  of 
fertilization  makes  plain  at  once  how  all  kinds  of 
bacteria  may  be  introduced  into  the  egg  tube  by  the 
male  bird  in  the  act  of  copulation.  Once  in  the  egg 
tube  it  is  not  difficult  for  the  bacteria  to  eventually 
reach  the  ovary  and  thus  we  may  have  infection  of  eggs 
in  the  ovary  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  egg  tube." 

SIMPLE  REMEDIES  FOR  POULTRY 

Every  poultryman  should  have  at  hand  a  few  simple 
remedies  that  may  be  safely  used  in  the  treatment  of 
poultry  diseases  and  ailments.  Many  of  the  common 
remedies  kept  in  the  home  for  use  with  children  will 
be  valuable  for  poultry.  The  following  materials  are 
all  convenient  for  the  poultryman  to  have  on  hand: 


184       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Epsom  salts,  called  also  bitter  salt,  is  a  white,  hydrated, 
crystalline  salt  known  chemically  as  magnesium  sulphate. 
It  is  used  as  a  purgative  in  doses  of  Ys  teaspoonful  to 
each  fowl. 

Castor  oil  is  a  thick  yellowish-white  oil  expressed  from 
the  castor  bean.  It  is  used  as  a  purgative. 

Olive  oil,  called  also  sweet  oil,  is  an  oil  expressed  from 
the  ripe  fruit  of  the  olive.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  butter 
in  some  countries,  but  in  most  parts  of  the  civilized 
world  is  used  chiefly  in  salad  dressings.  Olive  oil  is 
the  most  nearly  perfect  laxative  for  use  with  poultry, 
as  it  is  both  healing  and  nutritious,  thus  possessing  an 
advantage  over  castor  oil.  A  tablespoonful  of  olive  oil 
can  be  safely  administered. 

Camphor  is  a  gumlike,  translucent,  crystalline  com- 
pound with  a  penetrating,  fragrant  odor;  it  is  distilled 
from  the  wood  and  bark  of  the  camphor  tree.  It  may 
be  used  as  a  medicine  for  poultry  to  allay  irritation, 
as  in  colds  and  in  cases  of  slight  diarrhea. 

Copper  sulphate,  called  also  bluestone,  is  a  blue  crystal- 
line substance  that  is  used  as  an  astringent  and  stimu- 
lant, but  not  more  than  from  %  to  %  gr.  should  be 
administered  more  than  once  a  day  to  any  fowl. 

Iron  sulphate,  called  also  copperas,  is  a  green,  crystal- 
line substance  that  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
copper  sulphate  and  can  be  administered  in  doses  of 
*A  to  y2  gr. 

Douglas  mixture  is  used  as  a  tonic  for  both  poultry  and 
pigeons,  and  is  made  by  mixing  ^2  lb.  of  iron  sulphate 
with  1  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid  dissolved  in  2  gal.  of  water. 
This  may  be  used  in  the  drinking  water— 2  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  the  mixture  to  each  pint  of  water. 

Table  salt  is  sparingly  used  to  season  mash  foods 
for  poultry.  A  large  quantity  of  salt  will  kill  poultry, 
and  it  is  better  to  give  them  none  than  too  much.  Less 
salt  should  be  used  to  season  food  for  poultry  than  is 
needed  for  human  beings. 

Rhinitis  tablets,  half  strength,  are  an  excellent  remedy 
for  a  cold  in  its  early  stages.  They  are  given  to 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY        185 

poultry  that  have  slight  colds — two  tablets  two  or  three 
times  a  day  for  from  1  to  3  da. 

Homeopathic  remedies  are  used  by  many  poultrymen  for 
their  poultry  with  satisfactory  results.  Such  remedies 
should  be  given  to  poultry  in  quantities  about  as 
recommended  for  children. 

Healing  powders  for  applying  to  sores  of  any  kind  are 
useful  to  have  on  a  poultry  establishment.  Equal  parts 
of  burnt  alum  and  zinc  oxide;  or  zinc  oxide,  powdered 
magnesia,  and  Venetian  red  are  effective  for  this  pur- 
pose. Burnt  alum  and  the  mixture  of  burnt  alum  and 
zinc  oxide  are  excellent  for  use  on  any  kind  of  sores. 
The  zinc  oxide  and  the  powdered  magnesia  are  very 
healing  and  painless.  The  Venetian  red  is  slightly 
caustic  and  may  be  used  where  a  light  cauterization  is 
needed. 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  a  clear  solution  that  looks  like 
water,  is  useful  for  cleansing  and  disinfecting  ulcers 
or  other  sores  on  poultry. 

Paraffin  oil  is  a  mineral  oil  derived  from  petroleum. 
It  may  be  used  for  relief  in  cases  of  scaly  leg  and 
bumblefoot  and  may  be  applied  to  injuries  of  the  shank, 
but  should  not  be  applied  to  the  skin  of  the  body  or  to 
the  feathers. 

Ointments  are  sometimes  needed  for  irritations  of  the 
skin.  Fresh  zinc-oxide  ointment  is  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  when  it  becomes  rancid  it  is  unfit  for  use.  An 
ointment  made  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  rose 
water  mixed  in  a  mortar  with  zinc  oxide  until  the 
whole  assumes  a  thick  mass,  may  also  be  used. 

Iodine,  turpentine,  creollne,  zenoleum,  and  tincture  of 
iron  are  effective  for  destroying  warts  on  poultry. 

Tonics  for  preventing  illness  should  never  be  given  to 
poultry.  Fowls  in  good  health  do  much  better  without 
them.  A  tonic  for  young  or  half-grown  chicks  that  have 
been  weakened  from  any  cause  may  be  given  in  pill 
form  according  to  the  following  formula:  2  dr.  of 
iron  citrate  and  30  gr.  of  quinine  sulphate,  mixed 
into  a  mass  with  sirup  of  gum  arabic  so  as  to  make 


186       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

enough   for  60   pills.     One   of   these   pills   may   be   given 
night   and   morning   for  3   da. 

AILMENTS  AND  TREATMENT 
Colds,  Canker,  Catarrh,  and  Roup.— The  most  common 
ailments  of  fowls  are  colds,  canker,  catarrh,  and  roup. 
All  of  these  troubles  are  likely  to  come  from  exposure 
to  damp  or  cold  at  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  tem- 
perature rises  and  falls  quickly.  Fowls  are  just  as 
likely  to  take  a  cold  in  July  and  Aug.  as  in  midwin- 
ter; they  are  especially  likely  to  take  cold  on  rainy 
days  in  the  summer  when  they  go  to  roost  with  wet 
plumage. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  colds,  canker,  catarrh,  and  roup 
are  often  merely  stages  of  the  same  disease.  A  cold 
may  begin  by  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nostrils, 
accompanied,  perhaps,  by  watering  of  the  eyes.  Canker 
and  catarrh,  which  are  inflammations  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, are  mild  forms  of  diphtheria  in  which  patches  may 
grow  on  the  inside  of  the  throat  and  on  the  tongue  or  at 
the  opening  of  the  windpipe.  These  conditions  follow 
one  another  quickly,  unless  prompt  attention  is  given 
to  the  first  symptoms  of  cold.  The  earlier  forms  of  the 
disease  do  not  seem  to  be  contagious,  but  roup  is 
contagious. 

So  many  remedies  are  used  in  the  treatment  of  these 
diseases  that  it  is  difficult  to  choose  between  them.  The 
best  remedy  of  all,  perhaps,  is  permanganate  of  potash 
administered  in  the  drinking  water.  The  bathing  of 
the  head,  face,  throat,  and  nostrils  with  warm  water 
in  which  some  antiseptic  solution  is  mixed,  and  the 
maintenance  of  perfect  cleanliness  in  their  surroundings 
is  also  advisable.  The  giving  of  internal  remedies  is 
very  unsatisfactory,  and  any  attempt  to  cure  fowls 
afflicted  with  roup  by  any  such  means  is  almost  useless. 
Fowls  badly  affected  with  roup  should  be  promptly 
killed,  their  bodies  buried,  and  the  premises  cleaned 
and  disinfected  with  creosote  or  some  other  similar 
material.  Permanganate  of  potash  should  be  given  to 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY      187 

the  rest  of  the  flock  in  their  drinking  water.  A  saturated 
solution  may  be  made  by  placing  1  oz.  of  the  crystals 
of  permanganate  of  potash  in  a  2-oz.  bottle  of  water. 
One  teaspoonful  of  this  saturated  solution  will  be 
sufficient  for  1  gal.  of  drinking  water.  A  warm  mash 
with  a  little  ginger  and  red  pepper  added  as  a  tonic 
may  also  be  given  with  advantage. 

Gapes.— Gapes  is  a  disease  caused  by  parasites  or  gape 
worms  growing  and  adhering  to  the  inner  lining  of  the 
windpipe.  This  causes  the  chicks  to  gasp  for  breath; 
they  open  their  mouths  wide  and  sneeze  or  cough  in  an 
effort  to  throw  the  parasite  out  of  the  windpipe. 

Among  the  remedies  used  for  this  is  the  feeding  of 
asafetida,  garlic,  or  onion  tops  in  soft  food.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  asafetida  to  a  pint  of  food  will  be 
plenty  of  this.  Garlic  and  onion  tops  as  much  as  they 
will  eat  will  not  injure  them.  Another  means  of  relief 
is  to  introduce  a  feather  down  the  throat  and  into  the 
windpipe,  the  point  of  the  feather  being  dipped  in  sweet 
oil  before  being  introduced  to  the  windpipe. 

Bronchitis.— Bronchitis  is  a  disease  of  the  lining  of 
the  air  tubes.  Fowls  that  take  cold  are  apt  to  have 
irritation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  When  this  becomes 
aggravated  a  rattling  in  the  throat  is  apparent.  Treat- 
ment is  difficult.  One  drop  of  tincture  of  aconite  may 
be  given  every  hour  until  four  or  five  doses  have  been 
administered.  The  fowl  should  be  fed  on  warm  bread 
and  milk  or  a  warm  mash.  When  the  rattling  in  the 
throat  becomes  aggravated  there  is  but  little  chance  for 
relief.  The  use  of  pills  made  of  iron>  quinine,  and 
strychnine  of  the  same  strength  that  would  be  given  to 
a  lO-yr.-old  child  may  be  administered  one  each 
morning  and  evening. 

Diseases  of  the  Intestines.— Diseases  of  the  intestines 
are  caused  by  improper  feeding,  poorly  kept  or  un- 
sanitary houses,  yards,  and  buildings,  or  long-continued 
exposure  to  damp  and  cold.  These  intestinal  irritations 
cause  diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  like  ailments,  which 
may  bring  about  what  is  known  as  going  light.  The 


188       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

only  safety  against  such  ailments  is  perfect  cleanliness, 
protection  from  cold  and  damp,  and  proper  feeding. 

Fowls  that  are  attacked  with  looseness  of  the  bowels 
or  diarrhea  may  be  treated  by  separating  them  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock,  cutting  off  their  supply  of  green 
food,  and  giving  them  water  to  drink  in  which  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  tincture  of  iron  has  been  mixed  in  each 
quart  of  water,  feeding  them  warm  mash  composed  of 
either  stale  bread,  ground  oats,  and  wheat  bran  equal 
parts,  or  of  ground  oats,  wheat  middlings,  and  wheat 
bran  equal  parts,  either  to  be  moistened  with  hot  milk 
or  hot  water  and  seasoned  with  a  teaspoonful  of  red 
pepper  to  each  quart  of  mash. 

Of  recent  years  the  scourge  of  white  diarrhea  has 
spread  throughout  the  world.  Some  persons  claim  that 
nearly  one-half  of  all  the  little  chicks  hatched  are  lost 
through  this  ailment.  Whether  or  not  so  large  a  per- 
centage of  all  chicks  hatched  die  from  this  disease,  it 
is  a  fact  that  entirely  too  many  die  in  this  way  and 
that  nearly  all  of  the  little  chicks  that  die  of  looseness 
of  the  bowels  have  white  diarrhea.  The  symptoms  of 
white  diarrhea  are  unmistakable.  It  usually  attacks 
little  chicks  within  the  first  week  after  they  come  from 
the  shell.  They  shiver,  hang  down  their  wings,  close 
their  eyes,  and  stand  about  and  peep  in  a  most  painful 
manner,  and  the  discharges  from  their  bowels  is  like 
a  mixture  of  milk  and  lime.  Other  kinds  of  diarrhea 
and  looseness  of  the  bowels  may  be  caused  by  cold, 
exposure  to  damp,  or  eating  food  that  ferments  in  the 
bowels.  Diarrhea  from  these  causes  does  not  make 
little  chicks  nearly  so  sick  as  does  white  diarrhea. 

The  cure  for  all  these  troubles  is  care  and  manage- 
ment. If  little  chicks  are  exposed  to  too  much  heat 
under  the  brooder  or  are  chilled  at  night  under  the 
brooder,  if  they  run  out  in  the  damp  and  wet  and  take 
cold,  or  if  any  of  them  eat  bad  food  they  are  almost 
certain  to  be  afflicted  with  looseness  of  the  bowels.  This 
can  be  cured  or  prevented  by  avoiding  the  troubles  that 
cause  the  ailment  and  by  a  system  of  perfect  sanitation 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       189 

and  cleanliness  and  the  feeding  of  proper  kinds  of  food. 
Looseness  of  the  bowels  of  this  kind  can  usually  be 
cured  by  feeding  equal  parts  of  bread  crumbs  and  rice 
boiled  in  milk.  If  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the 
rice  to  moisten  the  bread,  no  more  moisture  is  needed. 
If  a  little  more  moisture  is  needed  use  hot  milk.  This 
treatment  can  be  safely  given  to  all  little  chicks  troubled 
with  looseness  of  the  bowels.  It  will  not  hurt  the 
chicks  with  white  diarrhea.  There  is,  however,  no 
known  cure  for  little  chicks  that  are  afflicted  with  white 
diarrhea. 

Diseases  of  the  Legs  and  Feet. — Leg  weakness,  rheuma- 
tism, and  gout  are  troubles  that  cause  lameness  in  fowls. 
Lameness  may  also  come  from  corns  or  bumblefoot. 
Rheumatism  and  gout  are  often  called  leg  weakness, 
although  the  leg  weakness  may  be  due  to  any  one  of  a 
number  of  causes,  as  for  instance  too  high  a  temperature 
in  the  brooder,  to  the  chicks  being  kept  too  long  on 
board  floors,  to  insufficient  nutrition,  or  to  a  lack  of 
bone-forming  material  in  the  food.  In  most  cases  die- 
tetic and  hygienic  treatment  will  prove  sufficient. 

Rheumatism  and  gout  are  kindred  diseases  caused  by 
the  fowls  being  exposed  to  dampness  and  by  being  shut 
up  in  badly  ventilated  houses.  In  fact,  nine-tenths  of 
all  poultry  troubles  come  from  damp  and  unsanitary 
houses;  if  the  houses  were  kept  perfectly  clean,  dry, 
and  free  from  insects,  fowls  would  have  but  few  ail- 
ments. There  is  no  cure  for  rheumatism  and  gout,  and 
scarcely  any  relief. 

Scaly  leg  is  a  disease  of  the  shanks  caused  by  little 
mites  that  come  from  damp  and  filthy  conditions.  The 
mites  get  under  the  scales  on  the  shanks  and  toes  and 
cause  swellings  on  these  parts.  Scaly  leg  may  be 
quickly  cured  if  treated  at  the  beginning,  but  it  is  hard 
to  eradicate  at  an  advanced  stage.  It  may  be  treated 
by  rubbing  the  shanks  thoroughly  each  day  with  an 
application  of  lard  and  kerosene  until  the  growths  are 
cleaned  off.  The  most  effective  way  of  dealing  with  the 
trouble  is  to  sell  off  the  afflicted  fowls  for  market 


190      ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

poultry  and  put  the  houses  and  surroundings  in  a 
sanitary  condition. 

Bumblefoot  is  an  ulcer  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot  of 
a  fowl  and  is  usually  caused  by  a  bruise.  It  may  be 
treated  by  applying  some  kind  of  ointment  or  healing 
salve  or  by  cauterizing  with  strong  iodine  or  a  saturated 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potash. 

Chicken  Pox. — Chicken  pox  is  an  ailment  that  comes 
usually  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  first  appearance  is 
noticed  from  the  little  black  specks  growing  on  the  face 
and  eyes,  usually  of  young  fowls.  These  continue  to 
grow  until  they  close  the  eyes  completely  and  the  fowls 
die  of  starvation,  because  they  cannot  see  to  eat.  This 
ailment  is  the  most  prevalent  in  warm  or  tropical  cli- 
mates, where  it  is  called  sorehead.  Frequently  the 
entire  head  becomes  raw,  and  when  in  this  condition 
the  fowl  is  so  afflicted  with  flies,  bugs,  and  mosquitoes 
that  it  is  almost  eaten  up.  The  only  treatment  to  be 
relied  on  is  cleanliness  and  the  bathing  of  the  afflicted 
parts  with  a  5%  or  a  10%  solution  of  creoline  in  water. 

Bad  Habits. — Egg  eating  and  picking  of  sore  places  on 
the  bodies  of  one  another  are  bad  habits  acquired  by 
fowls  kept  in  confinement  with  nothing  to  do.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  remedy  for  these  bad  habits 
when  they  are  once  acquired.  In  some  instances  they 
may  be  checked  by  transferring  the  fowls  from  place 
to  place  or  by  giving  them  perfect  freedom. 


POULTRY  JUDGING  191 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


METHODS  OF  JUDGING 

In  America  there  are  three  methods  of  judging: 
(1)  By  the  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association;  (2)  by  the  decimal  score  card;  and  (3)  by 
comparison. 

The  practice  of  judging  by  score  card  was  begun  and 
has  continued  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ever 
since  the  compilation  of  the  first  Standard  by  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association.  A  few  shows  that  are  held 
during  Nov.  and  a  large  number  that  are  held  between 
Dec.  and  April  are  judged  by  the  score-card  method. 
The  shows  that  are  held  from  April  to  Nov.  are  judge? 
by  comparison.  The  score-card  method  of  judging  has 
been  recognized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association 
since  its  origin. 

The  decimal  score  card  was  introduced  by  the  late 
I,  K.  Felch  in  1890,  and  since  that  time  both  the  official 
and  the  decimal  score  cards  have  been  used.  Although 
the  decimal  score  card  has  never  been  recognized  by 
the  American  Poultry  Association,  its  use  continues  to 
some  extent,  although  its  advocates  are  decreasing  in 
number. 

Although  comparison  judging  has  been  used  for  so 
long  in  the  placing  of  awards,  in  fact,  much  longer  than 
the  score-card  method,  it  did  not  have  the  sanction  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association  until  1904.  Judging  by 
comparison  is  practiced  each  year  at  all  shows  held  prior 
to  Nov.  1  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Nearly  all  the  larger  exhibitions  are  judged  under  the 
comparison  system. 

The  advantages  of  each  method  of  judging  depend  on 
the  ability  of  the  judges  accurately  to  determine  how 
nearly  the  fowls  under  consideration  approach  the  re- 


OFFICIAL  SCORE  CARD  OF  THE 

Fancier's  Poultry  Association 


OWNER- 


_BAND  NO. 
.WEIGHT 


Shape  Colo; 


Symmetry 

Weight  or  Size_ 

Condition 

Head  and  Beak_ 
Eyes 


Wattles  &  Ear  Lobes 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail 

Breast 


Body  and  Fluff 

Legs  and  Toes 

*Hardness  of  Feather. 
fCrest  and  Beard 


'Applies  to  Games  and  Game  Bai 
tApplies  to  Crested  Breeds 


-Judge 


_  Secretary 


FlG.l 


192 


POULTRY  JUDGING  193 

quirements  of  the  standard.  The  use  of  the  score  card 
is  considered  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  the  amateur, 
who  gains  knowledge  by  a  careful  study  of  his  own 
fowls  in  comparing  them  with  the  decisions  of  the 
judge,  which  are  shown  in  detail  on  the  cards,  which 
go  to  the  exhibitors.  Comparison  judging,  however,  is 
equally  beneficial,  provided  the  exhibitor  is  present  and 
can  understand  the  reasons  for  the  various  awards  and 
rejections.  Comparison  judging  becomes  of  more  gen- 
eral use  in  neighborhoods  where  poultry  shows  have 
been  held  annually  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Score-card  judging  is  in  more  common  use  in  localities 
where  the  practice  of  holding  poultry  shows  is  in  its 
infancy.  More  shows  are  judged  by  score  cards  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada  than  are  judged  by 
comparison.  Comparison  judging  is  really  an  advanced 
system  of  judging  that  can  be  employed  by  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  distinctions  considered  of  the 
greatest  importance. 


SCORE  CARDS 

A  copy  of  the  official  score  card  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  only  change 
needed  to  make  this  score  card  local  is  to  print  at  the 
top  in  place  of  "Fancier's  Poultry  Association,"  the 
name  of  the  local  association  using  it.  This  card  gives 
a  list  of  the  parts  of  a  fowl  in  respect  to  which  it  is 
to  be  scored,  and  a  space  is  provided  for  noting  the 
score  for  each  part.  A  definite  number  of  points  is 
assigned  to  each  part,  the  total  number  of  points  indi- 
cating perfection  in  all  parts  being  100.  The  figures 
scored  after  each  part  indicate  the  degree  to  which  it 
approaches  perfection  according  to  standard  require- 
ments, and  the  total  score  shows  how  closely  a  fowl  ap- 
proaches perfection  in  all  respects,  which  is  100  points. 
This  method  is  a  mathematical  analysis  of  the  defects 
found  in  a  fowl,  and  enables  a  judge  to  make  a  discount 
for  each. 


THE  DECIMAL  SCORE  CARD 

Bree 
Sex 
Coo 

d 

F 

ntry  N 
Jo  

o. 

3  No  Ring  1s 

Weight  

fe 
| 

LU 

8 

ft 

0 

.£ 

° 

c 
.2 

1 
•c 

CONDITION 
WEIGHT  or  SIZE 

Pill 

COMB,  or  CREST 
AND  COMB 

HEAD  AND  |YEK 
ADJUNCTS   ^TLL°EBSE 

NECK             Shape 

INC  THIS  CARD.—  To  cut  for  weight,  comb,  head, 
tures,  defective  and  cut  In  the  column.  For  shape, 
otted  line.  For  color,  below  the  line.  Shape  being 
or.  cut  in  space  for  shape,  but  low  enough  to  include 
r  being  the  greater  evil,  commence  the  figure  just 
md  carry  deep  down  into  color  space.  Thu  secures 
bitions. 

BACK            Shape 

BREAST        gg; 

BODY  and      Shape 
FLUFF           Color 

WINGS          Shape 

TAIL       ggr 

LEGS  and        Shape 

TOES            c±8 

Total  Defects                            Score 

-,,  Prf««jrJ<»ril 

FIG.  2 


POULTRY  JUDGING  195 

The  score  card  was  designed  for  judging  poultry  at 
exhibitions.  The  object  was  not  only  to  decide  the 
awards,  giving  the  highest  scores  and  the  best  prizes  to 
the  fowls  least  defective,  but  to  give  every  fowl  exhib- 
ited a  rating  in  terms  of  the  standard  requirements  and 
in  comparison  with  competing  fowls  of  the  same  sex  and 
variety.  This  system  can  be  used  also  by  fanciers  and 
breeders  as  a  guide  in  computing  values  in  sale  fowls, 
and  in  selecting  breeding  and  exhibition  fowls. 

A  copy  of  the  decimal  score  card  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  card  provides  ten  divisions  for  the  features  in 
respect  to  which  a  fowl  is  to  be  scored,  and  the  perfect 
score  for  each  feature  is  10  points.  Provision  is  made 
where  necessary  for  scoring  features  separately  in  re- 
spect to  shape  and  color.  The  decimal  score  card  differs 
materially  from  the  official  score  card,  which  provides 
for  scoring  more  features,  and  these  are  valued  differ- 
ently for  different  breeds. 

The  arguments  for  or  the  objections  against  the  deci- 
mal system  that  have  arisen  have  been  directed  to  the 
fact  that  no  two  breeds  can  be  valued  the  same.  Those 
who  favor  the  decimal  system  claim  that  a  perfect  back 
in  a  Plymouth  Rock  is  of  equal  value  to  the  back  of  a 
Partridge  Cochin  or  a  Game  Bantam,  and  that  neither 
should  have  the  advantage  over  the  other  in  the  gen- 
eral division  of  points;  that  backs  for  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Cochins,  or  Bantams  can  be  valued  at  10  points  as  well 
as  to  have  the  back  of  each  fowl  estimated  at  a  different 
percentage.  There  is  evidence  of  value  in  the  decimal 
method  of  calculation  from  the  fact  that  the  monetary 
system  of  several  countries  and  the  metric  system  are 
based  on  the  decimal  system.  When  matters  of  such 
vast  importance  can  be  conducted  best  under  a  decimal 
system,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  conceding  that 
the  same  system  will  apply  equally  well  in  poultry 
judging.  The  adoption  of  the  official  score  card  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association  seems  to  have  been  based 
more  on  the  preference  of  the  members  of  that  organiza- 
tion than  on  a  consideration  of  its  relative  convenience. 


0 

g 


z 

0 


0 

0 


Q 


I 

I 
>-l 


If 


FIG.  3 


POULTRY  JUDGING  197 

A  convenient  comparison-judging  score  card  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  Any  number  of  lines  needed  to  complete 
an  entry  may  be  added  to  this  card.  The  comparison 
method  of  judging  consists  in  a  careful  examination  of 
every  section  of  the  fowl,  and  a  determination  of  the 
quality  by  this  means,  the  final  placing  of  awards  being 
decided  without  numerical  estimates.  In  fact,  to  judge 
by  comparison  is  to  select  the  best,  by  applying,  by 
means  of  sight  estimates,  the  criteria  of  perfection  es- 
tablished by  the  Standard. 

Comparison  judging  gives  due  credit  to  superior  value 
in  individual  fowls.  No  other  system  gives  considera- 
tion to  unusual  quality  so  equitably  as  does  the  com- 
parison system. 

When  properly  applied,  comparison  judging  can  be 
made  more  equitable  in  placing  awards  than  any  other 
system;  for  selecting  the  best  fowls  in  the  classes,  no 
system  is  superior  to  it.  The  main  objection,  and,  in 
fact,  the  only  real  objection  that  can  be  made  against 
it,  is  that  no  record  is  made,  nor  is  there  any  reason 
apparent  to  the  absent  exhibitor  for  the  award  of  prizes. 
A  record  by  scores  and  the  results  published  conveys  a 
numerical  value  for  individual  fowls  to  the  mind  of  the 
absentee.  In  the  score  card  he  has  comparative  nu- 
merical values  of  the  fowls  that  were  outside  the  list  of 
awards. 


JUDGING  OF  FARM  FLOCKS  AT  FAIRS 
AND  SHOWS 

When  at  Pennsylvania  State  College,  Mr.  Kilpatrick, 
then  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  displayed  a 
remarkable  interest  in  having  farmers  show  their  poultry 
at  county  fairs.  He  suggested  that  the  flocks  to  be 
exhibited  should  consist  of  6  females  and  1  male,  that 
each  lot  be  placed  in  a  coop  or  runway,  where  they  could 
be  readily  viewed,  and  he  suggested  that  the  accompany- 
ing score  cards  should  be  used  to  judge  them.  One 
score  card  is  for  judging  the  general -purpose  type  of 
fowls,  the  other  for  judging  the  egg-laying  type. 


198  POULTRY  JUDGING 

Since  then  several  systems  for  selecting  poultry  by 
outward  appearance  have  been  evolved.  One,  and  per- 
haps the  best  of  these,  is  the  Cornell  System,  given  under 
Selecting  Hens  for  Egg  Production.  Another  system  that 
has  attracted  attention  the  world  over  is  that  of  select- 
ing the  physical  characteristics  of  layers,  as  suggested 
by  Mr.  Barren. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  FARM  FLOCK 

GENERAL-PURPOSE  TYPE 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE      SCORE 

Head:  Small,  with  small  combs  and 
wattles;  beak,  short,  stiff,  and  strong; 
bright,  full  eye;  face,  comb  and 
wattles  bright  in  color  and  of  fine 
texture  5 

Neck:      Rather    short,    neat,    tapering   -to 

head    2 

Wings:    Small  and  neat  2 

Back:     Of  good  length,  rather  broad 6  

Breast:  Large,  full,  rounding,  well  de- 
veloped    6 

Body:  Very  deep,  broad,  and  compact, 
well  fleshed;  keel  straight  and  long, 
well  rounded  out  with  flesh;  should 
resemble  a  parallelogram  in  shape 30 

Skin:     Smooth  and  of  fine  texture;  yellow 

skin  preferred   4 

Flesh:  Firm,  evenly  distributed;  deep, 
especially  in  regions  of  desirable  cuts; 
should  give  indication  of  tendency  to 
fatten  easily  10 

Shanks:    Short,  stiff,  and  clean 3 

Plumage:  Abundant,  bright,  and  well 
kept;  free  from  dark  pin  feathers 

Disposition:     Docile;  quiet  but  active —        2 

Vitality:  Strong;  fowls  should  give  evi- 
dence of  perfect  health,  freedom  from 
vermin,  etc.,  and  must  be  neat  and 
clean  in  appearance  10 

Size:     Females  shall  weigh  not  less  than 

5  Ib.  each,  males  not  less  than  7  Ib...        8 

Uniformity:  Flock  to  consist  of  6  females 
and  1  male;  females  as  uniform  as 
possible  in  type,  size,  color  of  plum- 
age, etc.;  male,  same  color  as  females  10  • 


POULTRY  JUDGING  199 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE      SCORE 


Disqualifications:  Any  evidence  of  dis- 
ease, low  vitality,  scaly  leg  destroy- 
ing the  natural  color  of  the  shank, 
roach  back,  crooked  toe,  or  wry  tail. 
Fowls  badly  infested  with  lice  shall 
also  be  disqualified. 


Head:  Bright  in  color,  of  moderate  size, 
short,  broad,  and  neat;  beak,  short, 
stiff,  and  strong;  eye,  bright,  fully 
filling  the  socket,  giving  an  impres- 
sion of  alertness  and  brightness; 
comb  well  developed,  medium  to  large 
in  size,  full  of  blood,  and  of  fine  tex- 
ture ......................................  8 

Neck:     Of  medium  length,  neat  and  trim        3 

Back:     Long  and  reasonably  broad  ........        8 

Body:  Compact,  broad,  and  deep,  espe- 
cially in  abdomen  and  fluff,  giving 
plenty  of  room  for  vital  organs;  well 
rounded  out  with  flesh;  plump,  yet 
not  fat;  good  width  between  pelvic 
bones,  1J^  in.  or  better,  with  good 
distance  between  rear  joint  of  keel 
bone  and  pelvic  arch;  wings  of  me- 
dium size  ...............................  20 

Breast:  Shallower  than  rear,  present- 
ing a  wedge  shape  when  viewed  from 
above.  Should  be  rounded,  of  medium 
size,  giving  good  lung  capacity  ........  8 

Shanks  and  toes:  Shanks,  stocky,  not 
rangy;  of  medium  length.  The  fowl 
should  stand  up  stiff  and  straight, 
with  body  well  supported  on  the  tops 
of  the  legs,  the  fowl  standing  firmly 
on  the  toes.  Shanks  to  have  full, 
highly  colored  skin,  loose  around  the 
shanks;  should  carry  some  flesh.  Toe- 
nails,  short  and  straight  ................  5 

Tail:  Full  and  flowing,  not  pinched  or 

stinted;  a  tendency  to  be  carried  high  2 

Plumage:  Glossy,  flowing,  abundant, 

bright,  and  well  kept  ...................  2 

Disposition:  Always  busy,  singing  con- 
stantly, docile,  elusive.  The  male 
should  be  courteous  to  the  hens  and 
exhibit  great  courage  ..................  2 


200  POULTRY  JUDGING 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE     SCORE 
Flesh:       Hard,     firm,     muscular,     showing 

little  tendency  to  lay  on  fat 5 

Vitality:      Strong,    as    evidenced    by    gen- 
eral   appearance    and    condition    of   the 

fowl,  giving  evidence  of  perfect  health, 

freedom  from  lice,   etc. ;   must  be  neat 

and  clean  in  appearance 12      .     

Size:      Of    medium    size,    female    ranging 

from   3^2    to   6   Ib. :    male,    from   454   to 

7  Ib 5          

Eggs:     Eggs  to  be  of  good  size,  weighing 

not  less  than  26  oz.  per  doz. ;  must  be 

uniform     in     shape,     size,     and     color; 

white     eggs     to    have    the    preference 

over  brown  or  tinted  eggs,  other  things 

being  equal;  eggs  not  to  be  considered 

unless    all    flocks    are    laying    during 

the  competition    10  • 

Uniformity:      Flock    is    to    consist    of    6 

females  and  1  male;  females  should  be 

as    nearly    alike    as    possible    in    type, 

size,    plumage,    etc.;    male    should    be 

of  same  color  as  females 10          • 

Disqualifications:      Any    evidence    of    dis- 
ease   or    low    vitality,    scaly    leg    de-       . 

stroying     the     natural     color     of     the 

shank,  roach  back,  or  wry  tail.     Fowls 

badly   infested  with  lice  shall  also  be 

disqualified. 

UTILITY  SCORE  CARD 

Another  score  card  for  judging  layers  at  utility  poul- 
try shows  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  was  compiled  by  Irving 
C.  Lewis,  of  Ulysses,  Pa.,  and  is  copyrighted.  The  card 
can  be  purchased  from  Mr.  Lewis. 


UTILITY  SCORE   CARD 

All  Varieties 
For  Use  in  Utility  Poultry  Shows 


Type Date . 

Coop  No Band  No. . . . 


Breed 


Sex 


Weigh 
Condi 
Color 
Capac 
Prepo! 

Pelv 
EggT 

Judge 

t  

CUTS 

tion  

Comb  

ity  

ency  

Left  

Right  

Average  

Shape  

ype  

Total  Cuts  

Score  

Show 

Secretary 

Copyright,  1914,  by  Irving  C.  Lewis,  Ulysses,  Pa 
201  FIG.  4 


202      POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSO- 
CIATIONS 


BEGINNING  OF  POULTRY  SHOWS 

The  first  poultry  exhibition  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
one  held  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1846;  the  first  poultry  show  held  in  Birmingham, 
England,  was  in  1849.  The  first  poultry  exhibition  held 
in  America  is  credited  to  Boston  in  1849.  The  first 
American  poultry  show  to  attract  world-wide  attention 
was  held  in  the  American  Museum,  New  York  City,  in 
February,  1854,  under  the  management  of  P.  T.  Barnum. 
The  second  show  was  held  a  year  later  at  the  same 
place.  This  show  was  really  the  beginning  of  live 
interest  in  the  breeding  of  fowls  for  exhibition  in 
America. 

From  1860  to  1865  but  little  interest  was  taken  in  poul- 
try exhibitions  in  America.  From  then  to  the  present 
time  they  have  increased  so  fast  as  to  surprise  the 
world.  During  the  show  season  of  1911  and  1912  more 
than  700  poultry  exhibitions  were  held  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  more  than  200  in  England.  The 
number  of  shows  held  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
during  the  years  1917  and  1918  were  considerably  less 
than  prior  to  these  dates.  The  same  conditions  prevailed 
in  England. 

The  great  shows  of  England  were  the  Dairy,  the 
Birmingham,  and  the  Crystal  Palace  shows.  These  were 
discontinued  to  some  extent  from  1914  to  1919.  These 
shows  were  formerly  held  between  the  fifteenth  of 
October  and  the  first  of  December.  The  Crystal  Palace 
show  of  London,  England,  was  for  many  years  the  larg- 
est and  most  highly  considered  of  all  poultry  shows,  but 
within  the  last  few  years  the  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Chicago  shows  have  ranked  very  high.  The  New  York 
and  Boston  shows  have  come  to  be  considered  Qf  equal 
importance  with  the  Crystal  Palace  exhibition. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      203 


AMERICAN    POULTRY   ASSOCIATION 

The  American  Poultry  Association,  a  national  organi- 
zation of  breeders  of  standard-bred  poultry  is  the 
authoritative  body  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
This  organization  owns  the  copyrights  of  the  Standard 
of  Perfection,  issues  show  rules  and  regulates  the  han- 
dling of  shows,  and  lends  its  best  efforts  to  the  general 
upbuilding  of  poultry  culture. 

AMERICAN  POULTRY  ASSOCIATION  SHOW  RULES 

Poultry  associations  or  societies,  Associate  Members 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  giving  poultry 
shows  or  exhibitions,  governed  by  and  subject  to  the 
Association's  Rules  and  Regulations,  must  print  in  the 
premium  lists  or  on  their  entry  sheets  in  bold-faced  type: 

"The  (full  name  of  the  association)  being  a  member 

of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  their 

Annual  Show  (dates  here),  will  Jbe  governed  by  and  run 
under  the  latest  revised  Official  Poultry  Show  Rules  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association.  All  prizes  will  be 
awarded  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  American  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection." 

Section  1.  Under  normal  conditions  entries  shall  close 
the  day  advertised  (entries  bearing  postmark  of  that 
date  being  eligible)  and  entry  fees  must  be  paid  on  or 
before  that  time,  except  when  telegraphed,  and  in  such 
cases  remittance  must  follow  by  first  mail. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  under  disqualification  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association  is  ineligible  to  enter,  to 
compete,  or  to  act  as  judge  or  in  any  capacity. 

Sec.  3.  All  entries  must  be  the  bona-fide  property  of 
the  exhibitor.  Otherwise  he  forfeits  all  entry  fees,  all 
prize  money,  and  all  other  premiums,  as  well  as  the 
right  to  have  his  birds  remain  in  the  show  room.  In 
cases  of  disqualifications  under  this  rule  other  exhibits 
shall,  if  qualified,  be  moved  up  in  the  list  of  winners, 
subject  to  the  disqualified  exhibitor's  right  of  appeal. 


204     POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

Sec.  4.  In  cases  where  it  shall  come  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  management  that  disqualified  parties  have,  un- 
known to  them,  succeeded  in  making  an  entry  or 
entries,  the  right  is  reserved  to  cancel  such  entries,  and 
such  party  shall  forfeit  his  entry  fee,  prize  money,  and 
other  premiums. 

The  show  management  reserves  the  right  to  refuse 
entries  from  exhibitors  whose  conduct,  in  their  opinion, 
makes  it  desirable  for  the  welfare  of  the  show  that  their 
birds  be  debarred  from  competition. 

Sec.  5.  Each  specimen  regularly  entered  as  provided 
by  the  rules  of  the  local  association  will  be  judged  in 
its  order  unless  removed  from  its  coop  by  written  order 
of  the  secretary  or  marked  "Not  for  competition"  when 
the  entry  is  made.  Exhibitors  will  not  be  allowed  to 
handle  or  interfere  with  any  of  the  exhibits  in  any  class 
after  the  judging  of  any  variety  has  commenced. 

In  cases  where  entries  are  made  at  shows  where  cata- 
logs are  issued  and  exhibits  are  not  sent,  entry  fees 
will  not  be  returned.  'Associations  that  do  not  issue 
catalogs  may  use  their  discretion  in  this  matter. 

Sec.  6.  Exhibitors  attempting  to  interfere  with  or  in- 
fluence the  judge  or  judges  shall  be  dealt  with  as  pro- 
vided in  Section  3. 

Sec.  7.  Judges  shall  be  required  to  sign  the  judge's 
book  or  card  provided  by  the  show  association.  An 
official  record  of  these  awards  shall  be  preserved  by  the 
secretary  for  3  yr.  for  reference. 

Sec.  8.  No  specimen  shall  be  removed  from  the  show 
until  after  its  close  except  upon  the  written  consent  of 
the  show  secretary  or  superintendent. 

Sec.  9.  All  entries  are  entered  and  shown  at  the  risk 
of  owners,  and  while  associations  are  expected  to  exer- 
cise all  reasonable  care  in  the  handling  and  protection 
of  the  exhibits,  such  associations  will  in  no  case  be 
liable  except  as  provided  in  Rule  10. 

Sec.  10.  Birds  must  be  returned  promptly  at  the  close 
of  the  show,  and  any  lost  in  the  reshipping  through 
proved  carelessness  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  the 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      205 

show  association,  are  to  be  paid  for  by  such  association 
at  a  value  not  to  exceed  $10  per  bird,  as  agreed  liqui- 
dated damages,  it  being  understood  that  in  subscribing 
to  this  rule  the  exhibitor  does  not  waive  any  rights  he 
may  have  at  law. 

Sec.  11.  Any  exhibitor  disqualified  for  fraudulent 
practices  shall  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  Executive 
Board  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  within  1  yr. 
from  the  date  of  his  disqualification. 

Sec.  12.  Notices  of  a  disqualification  -with  a  detailed 
statement  shall  be  mailed,  by  the  show  association, 
within  10  da.,  to  the  secretary  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association  and  by  registered  mail  to  the  disqualified 
party. 

Sec.  13.  Protests  are  to  be  entertained  by  local  asso- 
ciations only  in  cases  of  apparent  dishonesty,  ignorance, 
or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  judge.  In  scoring  the 
specimens  in  dispute,  the  judge,  together  with  the  presi- 
dent and  secretary  of  the  local  association  (or  represen- 
tatives appointed  by  the  management  of  the  local  asso- 
ciation), shall  constitute  a  committee  of  three,  and  the 
majority  decision  of  this  committee  shall  be  final.  Score 
cards  made  out  by  the  judge  in  deciding  protested  awards 
are  to  be  retained  by  the  local  association. 

When  protests  are  entertained,  where  judging  has  been 
done  by  score  card,  the  specimens  under  dispute  shall 
be  rescored  by  the  judge,  he  to  act  as  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  three,  as  provided,  the  rescoring  to  be  done 
in  the  presence  of  the  other  two  members  of  the  com- 
mittee on  protests. 

Protests  a're  not  to  be  entertained  except  when  made 
in  writing,  and  the  person  making  same  shall  deposit 
with  the  secretary  of  the  local  association  the  sum  of 
five  dollars,  this  money  to  be  returned  to  the  person 
making  the  protest  if  his  protest  be  sustained;  if  protest 
be  not  sustained,  the  deposit  becomes  the  property  of 
the  local  association. 

Sec.  14.  Notice  of  protests  that  are  sustained  shall  be 
mailed  within  10  da.  to  the  Secretary  of  the  American 


206      POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

Poultry  Association,  to  be  brought  by  him  before  the 
Executive  Board,  before  whom  an  appeal  may  be  taken 
by  the  judge  within  1  yr. 

Sec.  15.  No  judge  shall  exhibit  in  any  class  which  he 
is  judging  and  he  shall  refuse  to  consider  any  bird  that 
he  may  recognize  as  having  been  owned  by  him  6  mo. 
previous  to  the  show,  and  no  exhibitor  or  any  one  inter- 
ested in  any  exhibit  that  may  be  in  the  class  shall  act 
as  assistant  to  the  judge. 

Sec.  16.  Associations  shall  have  the  right  to  reassign 
judges  for  cause  or  to  add  to  the  list  of  judges  as  occa- 
sion may  require. 

Sec.  17.  The  placing  of  names,  leg  bands,  or  marks  of 
any  sort,  not  provided  by  the  show,  on  birds  or  on  or 
in  the  coops  shall  be  left  to  the  rules  of  the  show 
associations. 

Sec.  18.  Show  managements  shall  have  the  right  to 
refuse  entry  to  the  show  room,  or  to  remove  from  the 
same  all  diseased  or  unsightly  birds,  and  are  expected 
to  avail  themselves  of  this  right.  Entry  fees  on  such 
birds  shall  be  forfeited. 

Sec.  19.  All  specimens  must  be  exhibited  in  their 
natural  condition  with  the  exception  of  Games  and  Game 
Bantams.  Any  violation  of  this  rule  shall  exclude  such 
specimens  from  competition  and  cause  the  withholding 
of  all  premiums  awarded. 

Sec.  20.  Any  matter  not  provided  for  in  the  foregoing 
rules  and  regulations  will  be  referred  to  the  executive 
committee  of  the  local  show  for  decision. 

Sec.  21.  Where  Standard  varieties  of  poultry  that  re- 
quire the  double-mating  system  are  exhibited,  local  asso- 
ciations are  permitted  to  offer  special  prizes  only  for  both 
single  entries  and  pens  containing  specimens  bred  in 
accordance  with  the  system  of  double  mating  practiced 
in  such  varieties.  These  specials  must  be  plainly  de- 
signated "Special  Prizes"  so  as  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  regular  premiums  offered  for  the  Standard  awards. 

Sec.  22.  Every  exhibitor  hereby  agrees  to  submit  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  and 

• 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS     207 

to  abide  by  these  rules  whether  he  is  a  member  of  the 
Association  or  not. 

Sec.  23.  Any  show  association  may  make  additional 
rules  or  regulations  provided  they  are  not  inconsistent 
with  or  in  conflict  with  these  rules. 

Sec.  24.  All  poultry  associations  that  are  members  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association  shall  be  permitted 
to  designate  their  exhibitions  as  official  poultry  shows, 
and  to  use  the  official  entry  books,  entry  blanks,  judges' 
cards,  ribbons,  and  other  supplies  furnished  by  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association. 

Sec.  25.  These  Show  Rules  are  official  and  are  copy- 
righted and  can  be  used  only  by  poultry  associations  or 
societies  that  are  associate  members  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association. 

Sec,  26.  Local  associations  must  offer  premiums  on  all 
varieties  of  Standard-Bred  fowls. 

Sec.  27.  Special  for  best  display  any  one  variety  shall 
be  made  on  the  points,  first  prize  to  count  6;  second,  4; 
third,  3;  fourth,  2;  fifth,  1;  pens  to  count  double. 

If  more  than  five  awards  are  placed  in  any  class,  all 
places  below  5,  shall  receive  one  point  for  each  such 
award  in  the  single  classes  and  two  points  for  pens. 

Sec.  28.  Premium  ribbons  shall  be  displayed  only  at 
the  show,  time,  and  place  where  the  ribbons  were 
awarded,  and  no  other  ribbons  or  special  prizes  shall 
be  placed  on  exhibition  at  any  other  than  the  show  at 
which  they  were  awarded. 

Sec.  29.  Exhibitors  making  charges  of  dishonest  prac- 
tices or  statements  of  a  defamatory  nature  against  any 
exhibitor  or  exhibitors,  judge  or  judges,  at  any  show  that 
is  an  associate  member  of  the  American  Poultry  Asso- 
ciation, shall  be  required  to  appear  before  the  board  of 
directors  or  show  committee  of  that  show  and  prove  that 
the  charges  so  made  are  true,  and  if  the  said  charges 
are  not  substantially  true  the  exhibitor  making  the  said 
charge  shall  forfeit  back  to  the  association  all  ribbons, 
medals,  and  awards  of  any  and  all  kinds  and  nature, 
and  the  exhibit  of  the  said  exhibitor  shall  either  be 


208      POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

treated  as  a  display  exhibit  or  removed  from  the  show, 
at  discretion  of  the  management  of  the  show. 

A  report  of  the  committee,  together  with  a  charge  of 
conduct  unbecoming  a  member  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association,  must  be  made  in  regular  form  by  the  presi- 
dent or  secretary  of  the  associate  member.  In  case  such 
charges  are  not  made  as  above  provided,  the  member  or 
members  considering  themselves  defamed  may  make  such 
charges  direct  to  the  President  or  Secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association. 


MEMBERSHIP  IN  AMERICAN  POULTRY 
ASSOCIATION 

The  rules  governing  membership  in  the  American 
Poultry  Association  will  be  found  in  their  publications. 
Those  desirous  of  becoming  members  should  send  to  the 
secretary  of  the  association  for  the  latest  revised  rules 
of  organization  and  application  for  membership. 

The  American  Poultry  Association  has  issued  a  book 
of  rules  for  the  holding  of  shows,  and  non-members  may 
obtain  a  copy  of  the  rules  by  application  to  the  secre- 
tary of  the  association. 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF 
PERFECTION 

The  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  the  only  guide 
for  judging  poultry  in  America,  is  issued  by  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association.  This  book  has  been  revised 
about  every  5  yr.,  and  the  next  revision  will  occur  in 
1923.  Changes  are  made  in  the  Standard  of  Perfection 
only  after  due  consideration  of  written  notices  specify- 
ing word  for  word  the  proposed  change  or  changes,  and 
the  written  copy  must  be  filed  with  the  secretary  of  the 
Association  fully  3  mo.  before  the  annual  meeting. 

Admission  of  New  Breeds  and  Varieties  to  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.— New  breeds  and  varieties  are 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS     209 

admitted  to  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection  under 
the  regulations  given  in  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association,  a  copy  of  which  can 
always  be  procured  from  the  secretary  of  that  Associa- 
tion. Any  one  who  contemplates  making  application  for 
such  admission  should  study  these  rules  very  carefully, 
for  there  is  no  other  way  to  obtain  recognition  except 
through  a  full  and  complete  compliance  with  these  rules. 


STANDARD   AND   NON-STANDARD   VARI- 
ETIES OF  POULTRY 

Show-room  classifications  are  not  the  same  in  all 
countries  or  even  in  all  parts  of  the  same  country. 
In  America  they  are  usually  made  to  conform  to  the 
breeds  and  their  varieties  as  listed  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.  But  in  addition  to  such  varie- 
ties, some  show-room  classifications  will  include  a  few 
of  the  non-standard  varieties,  and  the  greater  number 
of  them  will  permit  classes  for  any  of  the  non-standard 
varieties,  either  of  a  particular  breed  or  of  many  breeds. 

The  list  of  breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry  in  the  tables 
on  pages  210  to  220  includes  only  those  that  are  known 
to  reproduce  their  kind  of  a  settled  type  of  form  and 
color.  In  the  column  headed  Standard  Varieties  are 
listed  the  varieties  of  fowls  included  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection;  in  the  column  headed  Non- 
Standard  Varieties  are  listed  the  varieties  not  included 
in  that  publication,  but  which  are  bred  in  the  United 
States  and  other  countries,  many  of  them  being  standard 
varieties  in  other  countries.  In  this  list,  for  convenience, 
the  Antwerp  Brahma  is  classed  as  an  Asiatic  fowl.  This 
is  not  strictly  correct,  as  it  is  not  a  true  Brahma  and 
might  be  classed  as  a  Belgian  fowl. 


210        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


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POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        211 


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POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS         219 


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POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS     221 
STANDARD  WEIGHTS  OF  POULTRY 

The  table  on  pages  222  to  225  gives  the  standard 
weights  of  all  poultry  having  standard  weights,  the  aver- 
age weights  of  those  standard  fowls  that  do  not  have 
standard  weights,  and  the  average  weights  of  non-standard 
poultry.  The  following  list  contains  the  notes  corre- 
sponding to  the  references  in  the  table  and  includes  the 
disqualifying  weights  of  bantam  fowls: 

NOTES   ON    STANDARD   WEIGHTS   OF   POULTRY 
*Non-standard  breed. 
iCock  and  cockerel. 
2Hen  and  pullet. 
3No  standard  weights. 
«At  10  mo. 
6Penciled  Hamburgs.     In  other  Hamburg  varieties  the  fowls 

are  somewhat  heavier. 
6Colored  Dorking  cocks  often  weigh   from  12  to  14  lb.;  hens 

and  cockerels,  from  9  to  10  lb.;  and  pullets,  from  7  to  8  lb. 
7It  is  not  unusual  for  Houdans  to  exceed  these  weights. 
«Standard  height,  cock,  26  in.;  hen,  18  in.;  cockerel,  18  in.; 

pullet,  15  in. 
Disqualifying  weights  for  Booted  Bantams:  cocks,  28  oz.; 

hens,  24  oz.;  cockerels,  24  oz.;  pullets,  22  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Brahma  Bantams:  cocks,  34  oz.; 

hens,  30  oz.;  cockerels,  30  oz.;  pullets,  28  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Cochin    Bantams:  cocks,  34  oz.; 

hens,  30  oz.;  cockerels,  30  oz.;  pullets,  28  oz. 
^Disqualifying  weights  for  Black-Tailed  Japanese  Bantams: 

cocks,  30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 

Disqualifying  weights  for  White  Japanese  Bantams:  cocks, 

30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz.     Dis- 
qualifying  weights   for    Black    Japanese    Bantams:    cocks, 

30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 
13  Disqualify  ing  weights  for   Polish   Bantams:   cocks,   30  oz.; 

hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Rose-Comb  Bantams:  cocks,  28  oz.; 

hens,  24  oz.;  cockerels,  24  oz.;  pullets,  22  oz. 
^Disqualifying  weights  for  Sebright  Bantams:  cocks,  30  oz.; 

hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 
"English  standard  weights  for  Malay  Bantams:  cocks,  3^  lb.; 

cockerels  and  hens,  3  lb. ;  pullets,  2  lb. 
"Weight  of  adult  Bronze  turkey  cock;  yearling  cock  weighs 

33  lb. 
"Weight  of  adult  Narragansett  ^turkey  cock;  yearling   cock 

weighs  25  lb. 


222       POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 
{STANDARD   WEIGHTS    OF   POULTRY 

FOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

Pullet 
Pounds 

A  merican  fowls: 
Plymouth  Rock  . 
Wyandotte  
Rhode  Island 
Red 

Q1A 

sy2 

814 

Q1A 
$1A 

8 

71A 
71A 

6 

5H 

5 

Dominique  
Java                 .  .  . 

$1A 

5 

7K 

6 

8 

4 

6K 

*  Jersey  Blue  

10 

8  ? 

7 

5 

Buckeye 

9 

6 

8 

5 

Asiatic  fowls: 
Light  Brahma  .  . 
Dark  Brahma  .  . 
Cochin 

12 
11 
11 

9H 

8H 

9H 

10 
9 
9 

8 

7 

7 

Langshan  

9*A 

7M 

8 

Q1A 

Belgian  fowls: 
*AntwerpBrahma 
*Ardenne           .  . 

12 

15  to  6^2 

9H 

24  to  5 

10 

8 

*Brabant  

8 

6 

7 

5 

*Braekel  
i*Bruges  

16  to  8 
18  to  10 

24  to  6 
27  to  9 

*Campine 

1±1A  to  5 

-31A  to  4 

*Flemish  

1&A  to  9 

24H  to  6 

*Herve               .    . 

X3  to4 

22  to  3 

*Huttegem  

!9  to  11 

27  to  9 

*M  alines 

*9  to  11  Yz 

28  to  10 

no 

48 

Dutch  fowls: 
*Breda 

iGtoO 

25  to  §1A 

*Drente  
'Hamburg  
*Owl-B  carded 
Dutch  

!5  to  5£ 

^A 

24  to  4K 
54 

5K 

QH 

4^ 

Red  Cap 

6 

6 

5 

English  fowls: 
6  Colored  Dorking 
S  i  1  v  e  r-G  ray 
Dorking  
White  Dorking  . 
Orpington 

9 

8 

VA 

10 

7 

6H 
6 

8 

8 

7 
6H 
8^ 

6 

5^ 
5 

7 

*Scotch  Dumpy.  . 
*Scotch  Gray  

J8 
19  to  11 

25  to  6 
27  to  9 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 
TABLE — (Continued) 


223 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

Pullet 
Pounds 

English  fowls  — 
.  (Continued): 
Sussex.         

lOHtoll^i 

8  1A  to  9  1A 

9  to  10 

7  to  8 

French  fowls: 
Crevecceur  

8 

7 

7 

6 

7Houdan       .... 

7M 

61A 

6H 

5H 

La  Fleche  
*La  Bresse  
*Bourbourg  
*Faverolle 

8^2 
iStoGH 
WA  to  9 
7  to  SH 

7M 
24^to5H 
26to7 
6  to  7 

7*A 
6  to  7 

6M 
5  to  6 

Game  fowls: 
3Exhibition  Game 
Cornish,   or   In- 
dian, Game.  .  . 
Whit  e-Laced 
Red  Cornish.  . 
8  Malay 

!7to9 
9 

8 
9 

25  to  7 

7 

6 

7 

8 

7 
7 

6 

5 
5 

3Sumatra  

J5  to  6 

24  to  5- 

*Aseel              

MJ 

25 

*Old-English  
German  fowls: 
Lakenf  elder  
Mediterranean 
fowls: 
Ancona.  
Andalusian 

*4M  to  7 
!5to6 

,      ^ 

24  to  5 
23  H  to  4  H 

4H 
5 

4tf 

5 

3^ 

Leghorn  
Single-Comb  Mi- 
norca   

5^ 
9 

4 

7H 

4H 
7^4 

33^ 
6V^ 

S.-C.  White,  and 
Buff,  and  Rose- 
Comb      Black 

8 

6H 

6H 

5  V^ 

Spanish       .... 

8 

6H 

6H 

51^ 

^Polish  fowls:  
Miscellaneous  fowls: 
3Frizzle  

^HtoGH 
9K 

21  to  5 

7^ 

8 

6 

*Naked  Neck.  .  .  . 
*Rumpless 

9H 
7 

7H 
5 

8 
5 

6 
4. 

3Silky  

6 

4 

5 

3 

3Sultan  
*  Yokohama  ,Tosa  , 
or  Phoenix  

16 

^HtoG 

24 
22  H  to  4 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

TABLE — (Continued) 
BANTAM  FOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Ounces 

Hen 
Ounces 

Cockerel 
Ounces 

Pullet 
Ounces 

Standard   bantam 
fowls: 
9Booted     

26 

22 

22 

20 

10Brahma 

30 

26 

26 

24 

"Cochin     

30 

26 

26 

24 

Exhibition  Game 
Bantam. 
12Japanese  
13Polish           

22 
2G 
26 

20 
22 
22 

20 
22 
22 

18 
20 
20 

14Rose-Comb  
15Sebright  
Miscellaneous 
bantams: 
*Andalusian 

26 
26 

26 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

20 

20 

20 

*Aseel 

26 

24 

24 

22 

*Frizzle  
*German  
^Langshan            . 

30 
30 
30 

26 
26 
26 

26 
26 
26 

24 
24 
24 

^Leghorn     

'     26 

22    " 

22 

20 

16  Malay          .   > 

26 

24 

24 

22 

^Minorca     

30 

26 

26 

24 

*  Nankin 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*Rumpless 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*Scotch  Gray  
3Silky            

30 
30 

26 
26 

26 
26 

24 
24 

*Spanish 

26 

22 

22 

20 

*Sultan  
*  Yokohama  

30 
30 

26 
26 

26 
26 

24 
24 

DUCKS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

.    Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 

Adult 
Duck 
Pounds 

Young 
Drake 
Pounds 

Young 
Duck 
Pounds 

A  ylesb  ury 

9 

8 

8 

7 

3Call            

22  to  2  H 

Cayuga 

8 

7 

7 

6 

Crested 

7 

6 

6 

5 

East  India 

7 

6 

6 

5 

*Huttegem  
Indian  Runner.  .  . 

7 

6 
4 

6 
34 

5 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        225 
TABLE — (Continued) 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 

Adult 
Duck 
Pounds 

Young 
Drake 
Pounds 

Young 
Duck 
Pounds 

*Khaki 

7 

6 

6 

5 

Muscovy 

10 

7 

8 

g 

*Orpington 

7 

6 

6 

5 

*Part  ridge  
Pekin   

7 
9 

6 

8 

6 

8 

5 

7 

Rouen 

9 

8 

8 

7 

Swedish  ... 

8 

7 

61A 

&U 

GEESE 


Adult 

Adult 

Young 

Young 

Classes  and  Breeds 

Gander 

Goose 

Gander 

Goose 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

African  

20 

18 

16 

14 

*Buff 

Chinese    

12 

10 

10 

8 

Egyptian     

10 

8 

8 

6 

Ernbden 

20 

18 

18 

16 

Toulouse  

25 

20 

20 

16 

Wild,  or  Canadian 

12 

10 

10 

8 

TURKEYS,  GUINEA  FOWLS,  AND  PEAFOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

Pullet 
Pounds 

Turkeys: 
Black  
Bourbon  Red.  .  . 
Bronze         

27 
30 
1736 

18 
18 
20 

18 
22 
25 

12 
14 
16 

Buff 

27 

18 

18 

12 

*Cambridge 
Bronze 

J18  to  24 

212  to  16 

*Fawn  

U8  to  20 

212  to  16 

*Gray 

28 

16 

18 

10 

Narragansett  .  .  . 
*Ronquieres  
Slate 

"30 
30 
27 

18 
18 
18 

20 
20 
18 

12 
12 
12 

White  
Guinea  fowls: 
All  varieties  .... 
Peafowls: 
All  varieties  .... 

28 
14  to  6 
U2  to  18 

18 
23  to  5 

27  to  12 

20 

14 

226  MARKING  OF  POULTRY 

MARKING  OF  POULTRY  FOR  IDEN- 
TIFICATION 

MARKING  OF  FOWLS 

To  attain  the  greatest  success  in  breeding  poultry, 
whether  for  egg  production,  market  purposes,  or  fancy 
stock,  a  poultryman  must  know  the  pedigree  of  the 
fowls  mated,  and  in  order  to  be  able  to  identify  each 
fowl,  some  system  of  marking  chicks  must  be  adopted. 

A   system    of    toe    markings    that    can    be    used    for    a 
limited  number  of  fowls  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.    As  shown 
in    the    illustration,    fifteen    different    combi- 
nations can  be   made   by   punching   holes   in 
the  toes  of  chicks.     A  number   of  forms  of 
punches  are  made  for  this  purpose;   several 
of  these  are  shown  in  Fig.  2   (a),   (fc),   (c), 
"^r^^T        (d),    and    (tf).      Care    must   be    exercised    to 
"y^^T       entirely  remove   the   severed  portion   of   the 
*^*^        web    to    prevent    it    from    growing    together 
•^x^*       again.     The  wound  will  heal  in  a  few  days. 
O-^'*^O       In   building   up    a   strain    of    good    layers, 
5'^v'^i?    t*16    beginning   is   usually    made    by    marking 
iv-fi^^*        chicks   from   the   most   prolific   layers.      The 
^  J[s  J?k    same  principle  is  applied  in  the  establishment 
{^"ysv^Hj     Q£  a  good  strain  of  market  poultry.     These 
/^^^*        markings  are  used  on  the  progeny  of  selected 
"l^"^*        stock    only    and    serve    as    a    guide    for    the 
'^^^       selection  of  the  pullets  that  should  be  saved 
-^/4^        for    winter    layers.      Those    that    have    toe 
jL«jL        markings    should    be    kept,    no    matter    what 
their    appearance   may   be,    for    in   this   way 
^p**^*        only  can  a  good  start  be  made. 
FIG.  1  Records  can  be  kept  quite  as  readily  with 

chicks  artifically  hatched  as  with  hen-hatched  chicks. 
The  partitioned  incubator  egg  tray  can  be  used  for  holding 
the  eggs  from  selected  hens.  The  eggs  are  marked 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


227 


with  numbers  before  they  are  placed  in  the  incubator 
for  hatching.  On  the  eighteenth  day  of  incubation,  the 
numbered  eggs  are  transferred  from  the  regular  egg  tray 
into  the  special  tray.  When  hatched  in  this  tray,  the 
chicks  cannot  get  out  of  it.  After  they  have  been  marked, 
the  chicks  may  be  placed  in  a  brooder  with  other  chicks 
with  no  danger  of  their  identity  becoming  lost.  Separated 
trays  can  be  used  in  any  incubator.  Partitions  can  be 
made  of  tin  or  wood,  and  they  can  be  placed  in  the  egg 
trays  to  separate  the  eggs  as  well  as  the  chicks  when 
they  are  hatched.  When  they  are  used,  the  unmarked 
chicks  must  not  be  allowed  to  drop  into  the  nursery;  if 
this  is  permitted,  their  identity  will  be  lost. 

To  keep  a  correct  record  of  chicks  hatched  by  hens, 
each  hen  should  have  eggs  from  only  one  hen  given  her 
for  hatching. 


(d) 


FIG.  2 


The  toe-marking  system  is  satisfactory  for  a  small 
number  of  selected  fowls,  but  when  the  breeding  opera- 
tions are  on  an  extensive  scale  some  other  system  of 
marking  must  be  adopted.  Bands  of  some  kind  for 
attaching  to  the  shanks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  are  satis- 
factory for  marking  fowls  and  permit  of  sufficient 


228 


MARKING  OF  POULTRY 


variations.     Several  forms  of  aluminum  bands  are  shown 
in   Fig.   4.     The   small    band   shown   in    (a)    is   suitable 


FIG.  3 

for  placing  around  the  shank  of  a  chick,  and  later,  when 
the  shank  grows  too  large  for  this  band,  it  may  be 
removed  and  fastened  thorough  the  web  of  the  wing. 
The  band  shown  in  (b)  is  used  for  chicks  also,  but  is 


(a) 


(b) 


(c) 


FIG.  4 

rather  too  wide  to  insert  in  the  web  of  the  wing.     After 
a  fowl  reaches  its  full  growth,  a  band  like  that  shown  in 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


229 


(<:),  which  may  be  sealed,  may  be  fastened  about  the 
shank.  This  band,  fastened  with  a  rivet,  is  shown  in 
(<f).  The  fastening  is  done  very  easily  with  a  pair 
of  pincers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  After  being  well  fastened 


FIG.  5 

or  sealed,  such  a  band  will  last  the  lifetime  pf  a  fowl, 
unless  removed  by  cutting.  All  of  these  bands  may  be 
stamped  with  any  number  or  other  characters  desired. 
A  type  of  aluminum  band  known  as  an  interlocking 
band  is  shown  in  Fig.  4  (e). 

Colored  celluloid  bands  are  used  for  marking  fowls 
kept  in  large  flocks.  They  are  most  useful  when  used 
in  connection  with  the  metal  bands  and  serve  as  a 
means  of  quick  identification  for  various  large  groups 


«*) 


(C) 


of  fowls  when  they  are  kept  in  big  flocks;  that  is,  all 
the  chicks  hatched  in  one  year  may  have  a  blue  band; 
those  hatched  the  next  year,  a  red  band;  the  next,  a 
yellow  band;  and  so  on.  In  this  way  the  age  of  fowls 


230  MARKING  OF  POULTRY 

may  be  told  at  a  glance.  The  bands  may  be  used  also  to 
identify  strains  or  families  of  fowls.  Though  they  have 
their  usefulness  in  this  way,  they  are  not  an  absolutely 
accurate  means  of  identifying  fowls;  in  addition  they 
are  liable  to  be  lost  from  the  shank;  in  such  cases, 
if  no  other  band  were  used,  the  identity  of  a  fowl 
would  be  lost.  Three  celluloid  markers  are  shown  in 
Fig.  6.  The  ring  shown  in  (a)  encircles  the  shank  a 
number  of  times.  One  end  of  this  is  hooked  about  the 
shank  and  then  the  rest  is  wound  around  much  in  the 
same  manner  that  a  key  is  worked  on  a  key  ring.  The 
ring  shown  in  (&)  is  a  small  one  of  the  same  type  as 
that  shown  in  (a).  In  (c)  is  shown  a  flat  celluloid  band. 
Poultry  supply  houses  sell  celluloid  rings  and  bands  in 
as  many  as  eight  different  colors. 

MARKING  OF  PIGEONS 

To  build  up  the  productiveness  of  a  flock  of  pigeons 
and  to  maintain  the  quality  of  the  squabs,  it  is  necessary 
to  mark  breeding  pigeons  in  such  a  way  that  their 
identity  can  be  easily  determined.  This  is  usually  done 
by  fastening  a  suitably  marked  band  of  some  kind 
about  the  shank  of  each  bird.  A  careful  record  of  each 
breeding  pigeon  should  be  kept  in  a  record  book.  This 
record  should  include  the  ancestors  of  each  bird,  their 
egg  production,  the  time  it  takes  for  them  to  hatch 
their  squabs,  the  time  it  takes  for  them  to  rear  their 
squabs  to  a  marketable  size,  and  notes  as  to  the  quality 
of  their  squabs.  With  this  information  systematically 
arranged  it  will  be  possible  to  prevent  harmful  inbreed- 
ing and  to  mate  the  offspring  of  different  pigeons  in 
such  a  way  as  to  improve  the  productiveness  and  quality 
of  the  flock. 

Bands  suitable  for  marking  breeding  pigeons  can  be  ob- 
tained in  several  styles  from  dealers  in  poultry  supplies. 
Some  of  these  bands  are  made  so  that  they  indicate  only 
the  year  in  which  the  breeders  were  first  mated.  This 
is  usually  done  in  one  of  two  ways,  either  by  having 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


231 


different-colored  bands  for  each  year,  samples  of  which 
are  shown  in  Fig.  7,  or  by  stamping  the  year  on  the  band, 


FIG.  7 

as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  colored  bands  are  usually  more 
easily  distinguished  at  a  little  distance  than  those 
stamped  with  figures.  Other  shank  bands,  in  addition  to 
indicating  the  year  in  which  the  breeders  were  first 
mated,  have  a  numeral  or  some  other  mark  that  indicates 


FIG.  8 

the  ancestors  of  the  birds.  Such  bands,  however,  are 
used  principally  in  the  breeding  of  exhibition  pigeons, 
the  system  being  too  complicated  for  the  producer  of 
commercial  squabs. 

In  marking  breeding  pigeons,  it  is  customary  to  place 
Ihe  band  on  the  right  shank  of  male  birds  and  on  the 
left  shank  of  female 
birds.  Squabs  that  are 
to  be  kept  for  breeders 
should  have  a  band 
placed  on  them  as  soon 
as  they  are  ready  to 
leave  the  nest.  At  this 

time  it  is  impossible  to  -  -          ^       - 

determine  the  sex,  but 

the  band  can  be  placed  on  either  shank  to  preserve  the 
identity  of  the  squabs,  and  can  be  shifted,  if  necessary. 


2Z:  MARKING  OF  POULTRY 

when  the  sex  can  be  determined.  Two  shank  bands  at- 
tached to  birds  are  shown  in  Fig.  9;  the  one  shown  in 
(a)  is  attached  to  the  right  shank  of  a  male  pigeon,  and 
that  shown  in  (6)  is  attached  to  the  left  shank  of  a 
female  pigeon. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  device  for  holding  pigeons  while 
bands  are  being  placed  on  their  shanks.     Such  a  device 


FIG.  10 

is  particularly  useful  when  the  band  must  be  placed 
on  the  bird  by  one  person.  In  using  this  device  the 
pigeon  is  pushed  gently,  head  down,  into  the  cone, 
where  it  is  held  without  injury.  The  band  is  then 
fastened  about  the  shank  and  the  pigeon  released  from 
the  cone. 


POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR  233 

CALENDAR  FOR  THE  POULTRY- 
MAN'S  YEAR 

OCTOBER 

October  is  usually  the  beginning  of  the  poultryman's 
year.  Ring  out  the  old  and  ring  in  the  new  is  usually 
practiced  at  this  time.  All  of  the  old  fowls  that  are 
useless  should  be  marketed;  the  flock  should  be  sepa- 
rated and  the  old  hens  and  young  pullets  placed  in 
different  apartments. 

As  the  weather  grows  colder,  more  precaution  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  ailment  from  creeping  into  the  flock. 
All  specimens,  old  or  young,  which  lack  size,  strength, 
or  vitality  should  be  culled  out  from  the  flock;  nothing 
but  strong,  healthy  specimens  should  remain. 

The  poultry  buildings  should  be  of  such  a  character 
that  no  drafts  of  air  can  blow  through  them.  All  air 
and  ventilation  should  come  in  from  the  front  of  the 
building. 

NOVEMBER 

The  spring-hatched  pullets  should  be  laying  at  this 
time,  and  the  best  of  egg-producing  rations  should  be 
fed  to  them  and  to  the  old  hens  as  well. 

The  growing  green  food  having  disappeared,  a  plentiful 
supply  of  sprouted  oats,  alfalfa  hay,  and  other  green 
foods  should  be  provided  to  take  its  place.  The  floor 
of  the  poultry  house  should  be  well  covered  with  dry 
litter  and  the  green  food  should  be  thrown  on  it.  This 
will  encourage  the  fowls  to  work  for  all  the  food  they 
get,  and  in  this  way  they  will  be  made  active  and  more 
healthy.  Fowls  that  are  too  weak  to  work  for  a  living 
are  usually  poor  layers  and  might  as  well  be  sold  to 
market. 

An  additional  culling  of  the  flock  should  be  made  at 
this  "time.  No  male  over  2  yr.  old  should  be  kept.  The 
earliest  and  best  cockerels  of  the  year  are  best  for 
breeding  purposes, 


234  POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 

No  hen  or  pullet  that  does  not  show  the  proper  indi- 
cation for  egg  production  should  be  kept  after  this 
period. 

November  and  December  are  the  early  winter  months 
during  which  time  all  hens  and  pullets  should  begin 
to  lay.  If  they  have  been  carefully  fed  they  will  do  so. 

Hens  and  pullets  should  have  a  good  egg-producing 
diet  at  this  time.  One  of  the  necessities  of  poultry 
during  winter  months  is  that  they  shall  be  protected 
from  the  elements,  have  plenty  of  exercise  of  some  kind, 
and  be  fed  on  a  liberal  grain  ration  composed  of  the 
grains  best  suited  to  egg  production.  A  liberal  supply 
of  green  food,  also,  should  be  fed  during  the  winter 
months. 

DECEMBER 

This  month  is  the  most  severe  on  poultry  and  the  most 
trying  on  poultrymen  of  all  months  of  the  year.  The 
houses  should  be  kept  warm  and  dry  and  free  from 
drafts;  all  cracks  and  openings  .  should  be  carefully 
covered  or  stopped  up  to  prevent  drafts  through  the 
houses. 

Hens  will  lay  but  few  eggs  at  this  time,  when  the 
price  is  high  and  the  eggs  most  desirable.  For  this 
reason  every  effort  possible  should  be  made  to  make  the 
hens  lay.  The  only  way  to  secure  a  good  supply  of  eggs 
for  market  at  this  time  is  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  possibilities  of  egg  production  through  scientific 
management  and  feeding.  No  one  not  fully  informed  on 
these  matters  c?.n  hope  to  have  a  full  egg  supply  from 
hens  or  pullets  during  midwinter  months. 

Plenty  of  green  food,  well-selected  grains,  the  proper 
quantity  of  nourishing  food,  and  fresh  water  are  neces- 
sities at  this  time. 

JANUARY 

Poultry  work  requires  constant  attention  during  this 
month. 

Cull  out  the  less  perfect  fowls  and  sell  all  those  not 
intended  for  producing  market  eggs  or  for  breeding. 


POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR  235 

During  the  last  part  of  January  look  over  the  fowls  and 
become  acquainted  with  those  suitable  for  breeding, 
so  that  no  time  will  be  lost  when  the  season  for  mating 
arrives. 

Fowls  will  need  more  fattening  food,  such  as  corn  and 
barley.  A  good  plan  to  follow  during  the  winter  is  to 
feed  a  grain  ration  composed  half  of  corn  and  the  other 
half  of  equal  parts  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley. 

Twice  a  week  or  every  other  day  feed  green  cut  bone. 

Dry  mash  is  one  of  the  most  popular  kinds  of  food  for 
poultry  during  the  winter  months.  One-third  of  a 
winter  dry-mash  mixture  should  consist  of  corn  meal  and 
the  rest  of  wheat  bran  and  wheat  middlings  and  some 
ground  oats.  The  same  ration  should  be  fed  during  Jan., 
Feb.,  and  March,  especially  in  parts  of  the  world  where 
these  months  are  cold  and  stormy. 

Supply  fowls  with  plenty  of  green  foods,  such  as 
turnips,  rutabagas,  cabbage,  lettuce,  cut  clover  hay,  cut 
alfalfa,  etc. 

FEBRUARY 

Winter  is  coming  to  a  close,  and  spring-like  diseases 
will  prevail  in  some  localities.  Farthest  north,  cold 
weather  will  continue  for  some  time. 

Houses  should  be  protected  from  spring  rains,  snow 
and  sleet;  either  glass  windows  or  curtain  fronts  make' 
good  protection. 

It  is  now  time  to  mate  fowls  for  the  production  of 
eggs  for  hatching;  select  the  best  of  all  and  keep  them 
separate  for  special  breeding.  No  sick  fowls  nor  fowls 
that  have  deformities  or  that  lack  .  superior  quality 
should  ever  be  used  in  the  breeding  pen.  The  best  of 
all  the  fowls  on  any  farm  will  produce  many  culls; 
this  is  reason  enough  for  using  only  the  selected  speci- 
mens for  breeding. 

A  liberal  supply  of  green  food  is  always  beneficial 
at  this  time,  because  such  food  increases  the  density 
of  the  albumen  of  an  egg,  and  the  heavier  or  more 
dense  the  albumen  of  the  egg  the  greater  strength  it 
will  have  for  nourishing  a  chick  in  the  embryo  state. 


236  POULTRY  MAN'S  CALENDAR 

MARCH 

March  is  the  most  uncertain  month  of  the  year. 
Weather  conditions  cannot  be  depended  on.  March 
winds  are  the  most  piercing  of  the  year,  and  the  fowls 
must  be  protected  from  the  elements. 

Little  chicks  should  be  kept  under  hovers  that  are 
inside  of  a  building  that  is  tight  enough  to  protect  them 
from  the  elements.  March  chicks  make  Nov.  layers. 

Incubators  should  now  be  in  action.  Nests  made  for 
sitting  hens  should  be  deep  so  as  to  provide  a  comfort- 
able nest  for  the  hen.  Always  dust  the  body  of  a  sitting 
hen  with  insect  powder.  Persian  insect  powder  is  the 
best.  Dust  it  down  well  into  the  feathers  and  close  to 
the  skin  of  the  fowl.  This  dusting  should  be  renewed 
every  3  or  4  da.  for  1  wk.  or  10  da. 

A  soap  box  18  in.  or  2  ft.  square  with  some  sand  or 
earth  in  the  bottom  and  dry  hay  or  straw  packed  well 
down  on  top  of  this,  provides  an  excellent  nest  for  a 
sitting  hen. 

The  nest  for  a  sitting  hen  should  always  be  placed 
where  she  will  have  plenty  of  room,  light,  and  shelter 
from  the  elements,  yet  be  confined  where  she  cannot 
run  away  from  the  eggs.  She  should  be  watched  and 
put  back  on  the  eggs  if  she  seems  to  neglect  them. 
APRIL 

April  is  usually  the  most  favorable  month  of  the  year 
for  hatching  chicks;  at  this  time  the  grass  and  all 
vegetables  are  sending  up  new  growth,  and  there  is  plenty 
of  natural  food  for  the  little  chicks. 

April  is  the  month  when  all  incubators  should  be 
filled  with  eggs  for  hatching,  and  all  broody  hens  should 
have  a  clutch  of  eggs. 

See  to  it  that  the  brooding  hens  are  well  fed  while 
doing  their  family  duty.  Laying  hens  should  have  more 
green  food  at  this  time  than  before.  Corn  bread  is 
good  food  for  the  mother  hen  and  little  chicks.  To  make 
such  corn  bread  mix  1  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder 
into  a  mixture  composed  of  1  pt.  of  corn  meal,  l/2  pt. 
of  wheat  bran,  4  oz.  of  good  meat  scrap,  and  a  little 


POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 


237 


bone  meal,  and  add  a  pinch  of  salt.  Stir  the  mass  up, 
moistening  it  well  with  milk  or  water,  milk  preferred, 
and  bake  in  the  oven.  When  well  baked  and  cool,  it 
can  be  crumbled  and  fed  to  the  little  chicks. 

April,  May,  and  June  are  the  spring  months  in 
northern  latitudes.  Less  fattening  grain  should  be  fed 
during  this  period;  some  wheat  and  less  corn  should 
be  fed  to  the  poultry,  and  they  should  have  an  increased 
supply  of  green  food;  if  bugs  and  worms  are  not  plenti- 
ful on  the  range,  they 
should  have  animal  food  of 
some  kind. 

Young  chicks  and  grow- 
ing stock  should  be  fed  lib- 
erally during  this  period; 
they  cannot  have  too,  much 
wholesome  grain.  Some 
dry  mash  is  helpful;  if  it 
is  desirable  to  grow  them 
quickly  for  market  pur- 
poses, wet  mash  may  be 
used. 

MAY 

Both  old  fowls  and 
young  chicks  should  have 
greater  freedom  during  the 
month  of  May  than  during 
the  preceding  months. 

All  parts  of  the  poultry 
houses,  the  nest  boxes,  and 
the  runways  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  Brush  the 
ground  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  broom;  after  the  top  cover 
has  been  swept  away,  dig  up  the  soil  and  turn  it  under. 

Chicks  of  the  Asiatic,  American,  and  English  breeds 
should  be  hatched  prior  to  the  middle  of  May;  those 
of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  should  be  hatched  before 
the  end  of  May.  Chicks  of  all  kinds  will  do  well  if 
hatched  after  June  1,  but  they  are  seldom  of  much 
value  to  the  poultryman  except  for  table  purposes. 


INDIAN  RUNNER  DRAKE 


238  POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 

JUNE 

In  some  localities  the  weather  will  be  very  warm 
during  the  month  of  June.  Shade  is  an  important  con- 
sideration at  this  time,  and  where  it  does  not  exist 
naturally  it  must  be  supplied  artificially. 

During  this  month  less  fattening  foods  than  given  in 
preceding  months  will  answer,  and  less  corn  and 
more  wheat  and  oats  should  be  fed.  Dry  mash  that 
contains  but  little  corn  meal  should  be  used. 

The  warmer  the  weather  the  more  green  food  and  pure 
fresh  water  will  be  needed  for  the  fowls.  No  fat  meat, 
but  some  lean  meat  should  be  fed  to  the  laying  hens 
during  this  month. 

June  is  apt  to  be  the  last  month  of  the  year  in  which 
chicks  are  hatched  and  the  eggs  from  which  they  are 
hatched  should  be  strong  and  full  of  vitality  to  infuse 
abundant  health  and  vigor  into  the  chicks.  If  the  fowls 
can  have  free  range  through  the  fields  and  woods  at 
this  time  it  will  be  of  benefit  to  them. 

JULY 

Cool,  shady  places  and  freedom  from  the  irritation  of 
overheated  houses  and  insect  vermin  should  be  the  order 
of  the  day. 

Poultry  must  have  shade  at  this  time  to  protect  them 
from  the  glaring  rays  of  the  sun,  which  will  scorch 
and  blister  their  backs  and  make  life  a  burden  to  them. 

On  the  farms,  all  the  male  fowls  should  be  taken 
away  at  this  time  and  sold.  They  are  of  no  further  use 
after  the  hatching  season  is  over. 

Thousands  of  eggs  shipped  to  market  during  the  heated 
term  are  destroyed  because  the  eggs  begin  to  hatch. 
This  will  occur  in  the  egg  boxes  traveling  on  trains 
when  the  temperature  is  above  100°  F.  If  no  males  are 
kept  with  the  hens,  especially  on  farms  in  the  southern 
climates,  there  will  be  fewer  spoiled  eggs  in  transit 
If  all  the  hens  can  be  turned  into  a  wood  or  on  land 
from  which  grain  has  been  harvested  it  will  be  beneficial 
to  them. 


POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR  239 

Plenty  of  fresh,  cool  water  for  drinking  and  a  clean 
place  for  roosting  must  be  provided  during  the  heated 
term. 

Insect  vermin,  including  lice  and  mites,  will  throng  the 
poultry  in  the  poultry  houses  during  the  heated  term, 
unless  prevented  through  cleanliness  and  care. 

July  and  August  are  the  hardest  months  of  the  year 
in  the  latitude  where  heat  is  intense  during  that  period. 
During  the  hot  period  fowls  should  have  principally 
wheat  and  oats — ground  oats,  wheat  bran,  and  wheat 
middlings  as  a  dry  mash. 

Fowls  intended  for  market  during  fall  months  should 
be  fed  liberally  during  this  period  with  fattening  food 
and  be  sold  to  market  as  soon  as  they  are  well  fattened. 

Shade  is  an  absolute  necessity  during  the  heated 
period.  If  natural  shade  does  not  exist  artificial  shade 
of  some  kind  must  be  provided. 

Fowls  should  be  in  full  molt  at  this  time.  Hens  that 
are  overly  fat  do  not  molt  quickly;  hens  that  are  very 
thin  in  flesh  are  slow  to  molt.  Fowls  in  good  con- 
dition usually  molt  the  best;  those  that  are  too  fat 
should  have  less  to  eat;  those  that  are  thin  in  flesh 
should  be  fed  liberally;  those  that  molt  well  should  be 
protected  from  cold  drafts  and  have  a  good,  nourishing 
ration.  Fowls  that  have  free  range  will  need  only 
proper  grain  diet. 

AUGUST 

During  the  heated  term  of  dog  days,  old  and  young 
fowls  of  all  kinds,  including  turkeys  and  water  fowls, 
suffer  intensely  from  heat,  and  plenty  of  green  food,  grit, 
and  fresh  water  should  be  provided. 

At  this  time  all  old  fowls,  male  and  female,  past 
2  yr.  old  should  be  sold.  The  hens  would  lay  but  few 
eggs  from  now  until  winter,  and  as  market  poultry 
they  will  probably  bring  more  than  at  any  other  time 
for  the  next  3  mo. 

Continued  cleanliness  in  and  about  the  poultry  houses, 
freedom  from  insect  vermin,  and  free  range  are  the 
necessities  at  this  time. 


240  POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 

SEPTEMBER 

September  is  the  turning  point  in  the  life  of  both 
young  and  old  fowls.  The  old  fowls  are  in  molt  and 
the  young  fowls  finish  their  coat  of  feathers  at  this 
time,  and  they  must  be  well  cared  for  and  fed.  They 
must  be  built  up  for  the  coming  winter,  and  for  this 
reason  should  have  more  nourishing,  more  strengthening, 
and  more  fattening  foods  than  they  have  had  during 
the  summer. 

Cold  rains,  changeable  weather,  and  cool  winds  may 
be  injurious  to  poultry  at  this  time.  Colds,  catarrh,  and 


INDIAN  RUNNER  DUCK  EGGS 

roup  may  injure  the  fowls.  A  change  from  outdoor 
life  or  from  closed  coops  into  unclean  poultry  buildings 
may  do  great  injury  to  them. 

All  of  the  buildings  should  be  swept  out  perfectly 
clean,  and  all  cracks  and  crevices  should  be  brushed 
and  freed  absolutely  from  dust,  dirt,  and  lurking 
vermin.  The  floors,  doors,  and  windows  should  be  put 
in  good  repair  and  the  inside  of  the  buildings  sprayed 
with  some  material  that  is  both  healthy  and  a  perfect 
insect  destroyer  and  disinfector.  Plenty  of  green  food 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  241 

and  an  increased  quantity  of  animal  food  should  be  fed 
at  this   time. 

September  is  the  beginning  of  the  fall,  and  at  this 
time  hens  lay  but  little.  Early-hatched  pullets  should 
begin  to  lay;  these  should  have  special  care  and  feeding. 
All  poultry  should  be  fed  at  this  time  with  reference 
to  the  winter  egg  production. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

How  to  Ascertain  the  Age  of  Fowls.— It  is  difficult  for 
an  amateur  to  decide  the  age  of  fowls.  Experienced 
poultrymen  are  at  times  unable  to  decide  from  outward 
appearance.  But  few  rules  are  safe  to  follow;  some  of 
them,  however,  may  be  depended  on. 

The  surface  of  the  skin  under  the  wing  of  a  pullet 
will  be  interspersed  or  marked  with  rose-colored  veins; 
these  are  totally  absent  in  hens  that  are  more  than 
12  mo.  old.  The  skin  of  pullets  will  be  fairly  well 
covered  with  long,  silky  hair;  this  disappears  directly 
after  the  first  molt. 

In  an  adult  hen  the  skin  will  be  white  and  free  from 
either  veins  or  hairs.  If  these  are  absent  it  can  be  seen 
at  a  glance  that  the  fowl,  if  a  hen,  must  be  more  than 
1  yr.  old. 

The  points  of  the  pelvic  bones  grow  much  closer 
together  in  a  pullet  than  in  a  hen,  yet  this  cannot 
always  be  depended  on,  as  the  cause  of  the  spreading 
of  the  pelvic  bone  is  prolific  egg  production.  Hens  that 
never  lay  may  have  the  points  of  the  pelvic  bones  close 
together,  even  though  very  old.  Usually,  however,  this 
test  can  be  depended  on. 

The  scales  and  skin  on  the  shanks  and  feet  of  young 
fowls  are  usually  smooth  and  tender,  and  the  toenails 
are  longer  and  more  pointed  than  the  toenails  of  older 
fowls.  The  scales  and  skin  on  the  shanks  and  feet  of 
older  fowls  become  rough  and  turn  a  whitish  gray  with 
age.  Scaly  legs  and  roughness  of  any  kind  on  the 


242 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


shanks  and  feet  indicate  an  age  of  more  than  a  year, 
in  all  kinds  of  poultry,  including  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
geese. 

The  faces  of  poultry  more  than  1  yr.  old  lose  their 
smooth  finished  appearance  and  become  wrinkled  and 
drawn.  The  eyes  and  eyelids  of  fowls  more  than  1  yr. 
old  do  not  have  the  fresh  appearance  of  young  poultry. 

One  of  the  best  indications  of  the  age  of  fowls 
is  the  appearance  of  the  secondaries.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  first  complete  molt,  which  occurs  when  the  fowl 
is  about  12  mo.  old,  the  secondaries  alter  in  shape  and 


FIG.  1  » 

show  evidence  of  the  dividing  line  between  the  young 
and  the  old  fowl.  This  change  of  the  secondaries  cannot 
be  readily  described.  The  wings  of  pullets  and  of  old 
hens  must  be  held  alongside  of  one  another  and  compared 
and  studied  in  order  to  appreciate  the  marked  change 
that  occurs  in  the  shape  or  form  of  these  feathers. 

Proper  Way  to  Hold  a  Fowl.— When  a  fowl  is  carried 
about  or  held  in  the  hands  it  should  be  held  in  a  position 
that  is  comfortable  for  it  and  cleanly  for  the  person 
holding  it.  When  a  fowl  is  held  by  the  shanks  and  feet 
with  the  head  hanging  down,  it  suffers  considerable 
pain,  and  if  the  crop  contains  water,  the  water  will 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


243 


run  out  through  the  gullet  and  partly  strangle  .the  bird. 

One  of  the  most  cleanly  ways  'to  carry  a  fowl  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  The  thighs  are  held  in  the  hand  with  one 
finger  in  between  them  to  avoid  too  much  pressure  on 
the  bones,  and  the  breast  of  the  fowl  rests  on  the  fore- 
arm of  the  person  holding  it.  The  fowl  suffers  no 
inconvenience,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  the  clothing 
of  the  holder  being  soiled  by  voidings  from  the  bird. 

When  the  fowl  is  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  feet 
of  the  fowl  are  free  to  rub  against  the  clothing  of  the 
holder,  and  any  filth  from  it  will  be  liable  to  drop  on 


FIG.  2 


and  smear  the  clothing  of  the  person  holding  the  bird. 

The  rule  to  observe  in  carrying  a  fowl  is  to  carry  it 
with  the  head  toward  and  the  tail  away  from  the  holder. 

Proper  Way  to  Hold  a  Squab.— Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  picking  up  squabs,  as  it  is  very  easy  to 
injure  them.  Squabs  should  be  picked  up  by  gently 
passing  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  under  the  crop  and 
breast,  placing  the  left  hand  on  the  back,  and  sliding 
the  bird  into  the  palm  of  the  right  hand  without  grip- 
ping it  with  the  fingers.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  crop  of  the  bird  is  not  injured.  When  the 


244 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


FIG.  3 


crop  of  a  squab  is  full  i$  is  heavy  and  apt  to  be  injured 
if  held  tightly.     It  is  not  necessary  to  close  the  fingers 
_  about    the    squab    un- 

Ull^  less    it   becomes    rest- 

less and  tries  to  get 
away.  When  a  squab 
tries  to  escape  from 
the  hand,  the  fingers 
should  be  closed 
gently  about  the  body 
in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  the  wings 
from  being  flapped 
about.  The  proper  way  in  which  a  squab  should  be  held 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a  squab  being 
held  by  the  fingers.  This  is  the  improper  way  to  hold 
squabs  under  ordinary  circumstances,  because  there  is  a 
tendency  to  squeeze  them  too  tightly,  but  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  hold  very  lively  squabs  in  this  manner. 

Proper  Way  of  Catching  and  Holding  Pigeons.— Catch- 
ing and  holding  pigeons  should  be  done  with  care,  or 
the  birds  may  be 
injured.  Pigeons 
should  never  be  —-r^~~^- 

roughly    handled    or  "  "'«\\\im ' 

held  by  the  feet  or 
by  the  wings  alone. 
The  proper  method 
of  holding  a  pigeon 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
As  shown,  the  hand 

is  placed  around  the  F        . 

rear  portion  of  the 

body,  the  wings  and  tail  are  held  gently  but  firmly  by  the 
hand,  and  the  shanks  are  held  between  two  fingers  to 
prevent  them  from  moving.  When  pigeons  are  held  in 
this  way  they  will  be  comfortable  and  will  not  struggle  to 
free  themselves,  hence  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  of  the 
birds  will  not  become  broken,  and  females  will  not  be 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


245 


injured  during  their  egg-la3nng  period.  If  female  pigeons 
are  chased  in  a  pigeon  house  and  roughly  grabbed  with 
the  hands  or  caught  in  a  dip  net,  they  are  very  likely  to 
be  injured,  especially  if  this  is  done  during  their  egg- 
laying  period.  In  pigeon  houses  that  are  so  built  that  the 
birds  are  able  to  roost  high  overhead,  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  catch  them  except  at  night,  and  then  a  box 
or  a  step  ladder  should  always  be  used  to  stand  on. 


FIG.  5 

LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL 

Following  are  the  legal  weights  per  bushel  for  various 
commodities.  Those  listed  in  tabular  form,  shown  on 
pages  246  to  253,  have  been  widely  adopted,  the  others 
have  been  adopted  only  in  the  states  mentioned. 

Alsike  (or  Swedish)  seed,  60  Ib.  (Md.  and  Okla.). 

Beggar  weed  seed,  62  Ib.   (Fla.). 

Bermuda  grass  seed,  40  Ib.   (Okla.). 

Blackberries,  30  Ib.  (la.);  48  Ib.  (Tenn.) ;  dried,  28  Ib. 
(Tenn.). 

Blueberries,  42  Ib.   (Minn.). 

Bromus  inermus,  14  Ib.   (N.  Dak.). 

Bur  clover,  in  hulls,  8  Ib.  (N.  C). 

Cabbage,  50  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Canary  seed,  60  Ib.  (Tenn.);  50  Ib.  (Iowa). 

Cantaloup  melon,  50  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Castor  seed,  50  Ib.   (Md.). 

{Continued  on  page  ^55) 


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LEGAL  WEIGHTS  1  PER  BUSHEL  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES  FOR  WHICH  BUSHEL  £ 
WEIGHTS  HAVE  BEEN  WIDELY  ADOPTED—  (Continued)  o 

MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 
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254  MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

NOTES  RELATING  TO  PRECEDING  TABLE 


!Not  defined. 
2Small  white  beans,  60  Ib. 
sGreen  apples.  [wurzels. 

4Sugar     beets     and     mangel 
^Shelled  beans,  60  Ib.;  vel- 
vet beans,  78  Ib. 
eWhite  beans. 
7Wheat  bran. 

sQreen  unshelled  beans,  56  Ib. 
^English      blue-grass      seed, 

22    Ib.;    native    blue-grass 

seed,  14  Ib. 
10Also  castor  seed. 
"Soybeans,  58  Ib.  [30  Ib. 

12Green      unshelled       beans, 
"Soybeans. 
"Free  from  hulls. 
^Commercially    dry,    for   all 

hard  woods. 
"Fifteen  Ib.  commercially  dry, 

for  all  soft  woods. 
17Standard  weight  in  borough 

of  Greensburg. 
18Dried  beans. 
"Red  and  white. 
^Corn    in   ear,    70   Ib.    until 

Dec.    1   next  after  grown; 

68  Ib.  thereafter. 
21Sweet  corn. 
22On  the  cob. 
^Indian  corn  in  ear. 
24Unwashed    plastering    hair, 

8    Ib.;    washed    plastering 

hair,  4  Ib. 
^Corn  in  ear,  from   Nov.    1 

to  May  1  following,  70  Ib.; 

68  Ib.  from  May  1  to  Nov.  1. 
^Indian-corn  meal. 
27Cracked  corn. 
23Shelled. 
^Free  from  hulls. 
^Standard    weight    bu.    corn 

meal,   bolted  or  unbolted, 

48  Ib. 
31Except    the    seed    of    long 

staple  cotton,  of  which  the 

weight  shall  be  42  Ib. 


32Green  unshelled  corn,  100  Ib. 

33Green  cucumbers. 

34See  also  "Pop  corn,"  "Indian 

corn,"  and  "Kafir  corn." 
35Green  peaches. 
36Green  pears. 
37  Malt  rye. 

asTop  sets;  bottom  sets,  32.1b. 
^Shelled,  56  Ib. 
^Shelled,  dry. 
41  Strike  measure. 
42Bottom  onion  sets. 
^German  and  American. 
44Shelled. 
^Peaches  (peeled);  unpeeled, 

32  Ib. 
46Cowpeas. 

47Roasted;  green,  22  Ib. 
^Not  stated  whether  peeled 

or  unpeeled. 
^Top  onion  sets. 
^Including  split  peas. 
61  In  the  ear. 
^Slaked  lime,  40  Ib. 
"German,  Missouri,  and  Ten- 
nessee millet  seeds. 
"Matured  onions. 
65Bottom  onion  sets,  32  Ib. 
66Matured. 
67Matured  pears,  56  Ib.;  dried 

pears,  26  Ib. 
^Black-eyed  peas. 
^Barley  malt. 
MIncludes  Rice  corn. 
61  Rice  corn. 

62Sorghum  saccharatum  seed. 
^Red  top  grass  seed  (chaff); 

fancy,  32  Ib. 
"Seed. 

65Irish  potatoes. 
^Free  from  hulls. 
•"Ground  salt,  70  Ib. 
^India  wheat,  46  Ib. 
69In  some  states  herd's  grass 

is  a  synonym  for  timothy; 

in    other    states     for    red 

top. 


The  states  of  Idaho,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Wyoming  have 
no  standard  for_bushel  weights. 


. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  255 

LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL 

(Continued  from  page  245) 

Cherries,  40  Ib.  (Iowa);  with  stems,  56  Ib.  (Tenn.) ; 
without  stems,  64  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Chufa,  54  Ib.   (Fla.). 

Cotton  seed,  staple,  42  Ib.  (S.  C.). 

Currants,  40  Ib.   (Iowa  and  Minn.). 

Feed,  50  Ib.   (Mass.). 

Fescue,  seed  of  all  the,  except  the  Tall  and  Meadow 
fescue,  14  Ib.  (N.  C). 

Fescue  seed,  Tall  and  Meadow,  24  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Grapes,  40  Ib.  (Iowa) ;  with  stems,  48  Ib.  (Tenn.) ;  with- 
out stems,  60  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Guavas,  54  Ib.  (Fla.). 

Hominy,  60  Ib.  (Ohio);  62  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Horseradish,  50  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Italian  rye-grass  seed,  20  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Japan  clover  in  hulls,  25  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Johnson  grass,  28  Ib.  (Ark.);  25  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Kale,  30  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Land  plaster,  100  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Lentils,  60  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Lucerne,  60  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Lupines,  60  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Meadow  seed,  tall,  14  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Meal  (?),  46  Ib.  (Ala.);  unbolted,  48  Ib.  (Ala.). 

Middlings,  fine,  40  Ib.  (Ind.) ;  coarse  middlings,  30  Ib. 
(Ind.). 

Millet,   Japanese   barnyard,   35   Ib.    (Mass,    and   N.   H.). 

Mustard,  30  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Mustard  seed,  58  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Oat  grass  seed,  14  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Plums,  40  Ib.  (Fla.);  64  Ib.  (Tenn.);  dried,  28  Ib. 
(Mich.). 

Prunes,  dried,  28  Ib.   (Idaho) ;  green,  45  Ib.  (Idaho). 

Radish   seed,   50  Ib.   (Iowa). 

Raspberries,  32  Ib.   (Iowa  and  Kan.);  48  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Rhubarb,  50  Ib.   (Tenn.). 


256          GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Sage,  4  Ib.  (Term.). 

Salads,  30  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Sand,  130  Ib.  (Iowa). 

Seed  of  brome  grasses,  14  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Spinach,  30  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Strawberries,  32  Ib.   (Iowa);  48  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Sugar  cane  seed  (amber),  57  Ib.   (N.  J.). 

Sunflower  seed,  24  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Teosinte,  59  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Velvet  grass  seed,  7  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Vetches,  60  Ib.  (N.  C.). 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 
USED  BY  POULTRYMEN 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  meaning  of  the  technical 
terms  used  in  the  poultry  world  is  necessary  before 
any  person  can  judge  fowls  according  to  Standard  re- 
quirements or  select  them  for  breeding  purposes  or  the 
show  pen  or  even  converse  intelligently  on  the  subject 
of  poultry. 

In  order  to  impart  a  clear  understanding  of  the  terms 
applied  to  the  different  parts  of  a  fowl,  a  profile  view 
of  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  different  parts 
numbered.  Following  this  will  be  found  a  list  of  the 
names  of  the  numbered  parts.  Farther  on  is  a  list  of 
technical  terms  and  expressions  used  by  poultrymen. 
Some  of  the  terms  are  peculiar  to  England  and  some  to 
certain  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  meaning  of 
each  is  fully  explained  and  many  are  made  clear  by 
illustrations. 

Abdomen. — The  part  of  the  body  of  a  fowl  that  contains 
the  viscera.  See  32,  Fig.  1. 

Albino. — A  fowl  that  is  pure  white 'in  all  parts  except 
the  eyes,  due  to  the  absence  of  coloring  pigment;  a  sport 
from  black  or  colored  fowls. 


FIG.  1 
NAMES  OF  NUMBERED  PARTS 


i,  Crest 

21,  Fourth  toe 

2,  Comb 

22,  Fifth  toe 

3,  Eye 

23,  Spur 

4,  Feathers  covering  the 

24,  Foot 

ear 

25,  Shank  and  toe  feath- 

5, Ear  lobe 

ering 

6,  Muff 

26,  Back 

7,  Wattles 

27,  Saddle 

8,  Beard 

28,  Sickles 

9,  Beak 

20,  Lesser  sickles 

10,  Face 

30,  Tail  coverts 

ii,  Hackle 

31,  Main  tail 

12,  Neck 

32,  Abdomen 

13,  Breast 
14,  Breastbone,  or  keel 

33,  Wing  bow 
34,  Shoulder 

15,  Thigh 
16,  Vulture  nock 
17,  Hock  joint 

35,  Wing  bar 
36,  Wing  bay,  or  second- 
ary feathers 

18,  Shank 
/9,  Third  toe 

37,  Primary,      or      flight, 
feathers 

20,  Middle  toe 

38,  Primary  coverts 

257 


258 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Amateur.— A  person  not  well  informed  about  the  art  of 
poultry  raising;  a  beginner;  a  novice. 

Antler   Comb. — A   comb    composed   of   two   small    prongs 
somewhat    resembling    antlers;    a    V-shaped    comb;     com- 
mon in  Polish,  La  Fleche,  and  some 
strains  of  Houdans.     Fig.  2. 
A.  O.  C. — Any  other  color. 
A.  O.  V. — Any  other  variety. 
Atavism. — Recurrence     to     an     an- 
cestral   type    or    to    a    deformity    or 
disease    after   its   disappearance    for 
several  generations;  reversion. 

Band. — (1)  A  stripe  or  marking 
of  any  kind  at  the  end  of  or  across 
a  feather.  (2)  A  band  of  metal  or 
other  material,  usually  stamped  with  numbers  or  letters,  or 
colored,  for  attaching  to  the  shank  of  a  fowl  so  that  it 
can  be  identified. 

Bantam. — A  dwarf,  or  pigmy,  fowl,  usually  about  one- 
fifth  the  size  of  a  large  fowl  of  the  variety  to  which  it 
corresponds  in  every  particular  except  size. 

Barb.—  One  of  the  side  branches  of  a  feather,  which 
collectively  make  up  the  web  and  fluff.  See  feather. 

Barring. — Bands  of  alternate  colors  that 
extend  across  a  feather.  Fig.  3. 

Barred  to  the  Skin. — An  expression  ap- 
plied to  fowls  whose  feathers  are  barred 
from  the  tip  to  the  end  of  the  fluff,  as  in 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 

Bay. — A  reddish-brown  color,  approach- 
ing chestnut;  also  used  to  designate  eyes  in 
fowls  that  have  an  approach  to  blood-red 
color. 

Beak.— As  used  by  poultrymen,  the  beak 
is  the  bony  formation  extending  from  the 
front  of  the  head  of  chickens  and  turkeys; 
it  consists  of  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles.  See  p, 
Fig.  1.  The  corresponding  part  of  water  fowls  is  called 
the  bill. 


FIG.  3 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


259 


FIG.  4 


Bean. — A  growth,  resembling  a  thumbnail,  on  the  point 
of  the  upper  mandible  of  the  bill  of  a  duck,  as  shown  at 
a,  Fig.  4.  A  like  growth  of  a 
smaller  size  is  found  on  the  bill  of 
a  goose. 

Beard.— (1)  A  tuft  of  feathers 
under  the  beak  and  about  the  throat 
of  such  fowls  as  Polish,  Houdans, 
etc.  See  8,  Fig.  1.  (2)  A  tuft  of 
hair  growing  on  the  breast  of  turkeys. 

Beefy. — A  term  applied  to  coarse,  overgrown  combs; 
such  combs  are  more  commonly  found  on  Mediterranean 
fowls  than  on  those  of  other  varieties. 

Beetle  Brows. — See  brows. 

Bib.— The  English  name  for  beard. 

Bill.—  The  mandibles  of  water  fowls,  which  correspond 
to  the  beak  in  other  domestic  fowls. 

Bird. — Fowl  was  the  term  formerly  applied  to  all 
winged  creatures;  modern  usage  restricts  the  name  fowl 
to  the  larger  domesticated  fowls  and  designates  the 
smaller  wild  fowls  as  birds.  However,  the  term  bird 
is  frequently  indiscriminatingly  used  instead  of  the 
term  fowl. 

Blade. — The  rear  part  of  a  single  comb,  generally  called 
the  heel.  See  b,  Fig.  25. 

Blocky.—A  term  applied  to  a  fowl  that  is  of  heavy  and 
square  build;  said  of  a  fowl  that  is  broad,  or  wide, 
between  the  thighs.  Compare  with  cobby,  an  English 
term  that  expresses  the  same  meaning. 

Bloom.— The  gloss,  sheen,  or  finish  on  the  plumage  of 
fowls. 

Body. — Fanciers  usually  apply  the  term  body  to  the 
trunk  of  a  fowl  only. 

Booted. — Fowls  that  are  feathered  on  the  shanks  and 
toes  are  said  to  be  booted. 

Bouquet  Crest.— A  crest  that  stands  up  from  the  head 
and  to  some  extent  resembles  a  bouquet  of  flowers ; 
found  on  crested  ducks.  At  one  time,  a  bad  defect  in 
Polish  fowls. 


260  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Brassiness. — A  term  applied  to  a  yellow  or  yellowish 
tint  commonly  found  in  the  feathers  of  white  fowls  and 
sometimes  in  the  feathers  of  dark-plumaged  fowls. 

Breast.— (1)  A  term  applied  to  that  part  of  the  front  of 
the  body  of  live  fowls  that  extends  from  the  throat  to 
the  point  of  the  breastbone.  See  13,  Fig.  1.  (2)  The  term 
is  applied  also  to  the  meat  on  both  sides  of  the  breast- 
bone of  fowls  prepared  for  the  table. 

Breed.— A.  family  of  fowls  all  of  which  are  of  the  same 
distinctive  shape.  A  breed  may  include  a  number  of 
varieties,  the  fowls  of  all  the  varieties  having  the  same 
shape  but  being  distinguished  by  different  plumage 
colors  and  markings. 

Breeding  Down. — A  term  applied  to  the  process  of 
producing  small,  or  bantam,  fowls  from  larger  fowls  by 
selecting  and  breeding  the  smallest  fowls  obtainable — a 
process  usually  involving  breeding  through  a  number  of 
generations. 

Brick  Color.— A  reddish-brown  color  occasionally  found 
on  fowls  of  black-red  varieties. 
Broken  Colored.— See  mottled  and  spangled. 
Brood.— A.  number  of  chicks  that  are  mothered  by  one 
hen  or  kept  in  one  brooder. 

Broody.— When  a  hen  shows  a  desire  to  sit,  that  is,  to 
hatch  eggs,  she  is  said  to  be  broody. 
Brows.— The  projection  of  the  skull  over  the  eyes  of  a 
fowl,    as   in    Asiatic    and    Malay    fowls; 
termed  beetle  brows  in  England.    Fig.  5. 
Cap. — The  upper  part  of  a  fowl's  skull 
or  comb;  a  term  used  in  England. 

Cape. — The      feathers      between      the 
shoulders    and    about    the    neck    under- 
neath the  hackle. 
FIG.  5  Capon. — A  castrated  cock  or  cockerel; 

that  is,  a  male  from  which  the  reproductive  organs  have 
been  removed;  a  female  from  which  the  reproductive  or- 
gans have  been  removed  is  called  a  poulard. 

Carriage. — The  general  appearance,  pose,  or  bearing  of  a 
fowl;  the  way  in  which  a  fowl  carries  itself  when  walking. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


261 


Caruncles.— Irregular  growths  of  flesh  such  as  occur  on 
the  head  and  neck  of  turkeys  and  Muscovy  ducks.  Fig.  6. 

Canmculated.— Covered  with  carun- 
cles. 

Castrate. — To  remove  the  testicles,  the 
organs  of  reproduction,  from  a  male 
fowl. 

Cavernous. — Said  of  nostrils  that  are 
prominent  and  deeply  hollowed.  Such 
nostrils  are  found  on  crested  fowls. 
Fig.  7. 

Chain  Armor. — Faulty  lacing  on  the 
claret-colored  breast  of  a  Rouen  drake. 

Chick. — One  of  the  newly  hatched  young  of  fowls  or 
birds. 

Chicken. — Specifically,  a  fowl  less  than  1  yr.  old;  com- 
monly, a  fowl  of  any  age. 

Cinnamon     Color. — A     dark     reddish 
buff,    formerly    admissible    on    one    va- 
^}  riety  of  Cochins. 

Claret  Color.— Descriptive  of  the  breast 
color  of  a  Rouen  drake. 

Clean  Legged. — A  term  used  in  de- 
scribing a  fowl  that  has  no  feathers  on 
its  shanks  or  toes. 

Close  Feathered. — See  tight  feathered. 
Cloudy.— A.  term  applied  to  plumage  that  has  irregular 
markings.     See  mossiness. 

Clutch.— The  number  of  eggs  a  domestic  fowl  incubates, 
or  sits  on,  at  one  time,  usually  from  11  to  15.  See 
sitting. 

Coat.— The  plumage  of  a  fowl  taken  as  a  whole. 
Cob. — A  male  swan. 

Cobby —A.  term   applied  in   England  to   a   fowl   that   is 
thick  set,  heavily  built,  and  round  in  form.     See  blocky. 
Cock. — A  male  fowl  more  than   1   yr.   old;  the  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  pit  game  cocks  of  any  age. 

Cockerel. — A  male  fowl  less  than  1  yr.  old.  The  practice 
in  the  show  room  is  to  allow  males  to  be  shown  as 


FIG.  7 


262 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


cockerels    during    the    entire    show    season    that    follows 
their    hatching.      Compare    with    pullet. 

Cockerel  Bred. — Bred  in  line  from  a  mating  made  ex- 
pressly for  producing  cockerels  for  exhibition.  Both 
males  and  females  from  such  matings  are  said  to  be 
cockerel  bred.  Compare  with  pullet  bred. 

Collar.— A  white  ring  around  the  neck,  as  in  Rouen 
ducks  and  in  pheasants. 

Color. — A  term  applied  to  any  one  of  the  many  hues 
that  may  be  found  on  the  feathers  or  on  any  other  part 
of  the  body  of  a  fowl.  This  term  is  used  also  in 
describing  the  coloring  of  the  entire  plumage.  A  fowl 
is  said  to  have  good  color  when  each  of  its  colors  is 
of  the  proper  tint  and  is  found  in  its  proper  place,  and 
to  have  bad  color  when  the  reverse  is  true. 

Comb. — The  fleshy  growth  on  the 
top  of  the  head  of  a  fowl.  See  2, 
Fig.  1,  and  Figs.  2,  5,  16,  20,  22,  25, 
and  30. 

Comb  Over. — An  expression  for 
lopped  comb;  used  in  England. 
Figs.  8  and  24. 

Comparison  Judging.  —  Judging 
fowls  by  comparing  them  with  one 
another,  and'  without  applying  a 
score  card. 

Concave  Sweep. — The  continuous 
curve  of  the  back  from  the  shoulder  to  the  tail;  required 
in  some  breeds. 

Condition.— The  state  of  the  health  and  plumage  of  a 
fowl;  sometimes  applied  only  to  the  finish,  or  appear- 
ance, of  the  plumage. 

Conditioning. — The  process  of  preparing  a  fowl  for  the 
show  room. 

Coverts. — Feathers  that  grow  about  the  tail ;  also  the 
secondary  quill  feathers.  See  30  and  38,  Fig.  1,  and 
wing  and  tail  coverts  and  hangers. 

Cradle  Comb.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  Wyan- 
dotte  comb;  at  present  little  used.  Same  as  rocker  comb. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


263 


Creaminess. — A  term  descriptive  of  white  feathers  that 
are  tinged  with  a  slight  yellow  or  cream  color. 

Crest.— A  tuft  of  feathers  on  top  of  the  head.  Figs. 
9  and  16. 

Crop. — An  enlarged  part  of  the  gul- 
let, or  pouch,  in  which  food  is  stored 
and  softened  prior  to  passing  into  the 
gizzard. 

Crop  Bound. — A  term  applied  to  an 
unnatural  condition  of  the  crop,  in 
which  that  organ  is  stopped  up  and 
food  is  prevented  from  passing 
through  it.  FlG-  9 

Cross. — A  mating  of  fowls  of  different  breeds. 

Cross-Bred. — The  offspring  from  two  fowls  of  different 
breeds;  as  from  mating  a  Plymouth  Rock  and  a  Rhode 
Island  Red. 

Curl  Feather.— One  of  the  set  of  curled  feathers  near 
the  base  of  the  back  of  a  male  duck. 

Curve. — Any  arched  or  concave  line  on  the  body  of  a 
fowl,  such  as  the  curve  of  the  back,  the  curve  formed  by 
the  flowing  tail  feathers,  or  the  arched  shape  of  the 
neck  in  water  fowls. 

Cushion.— A  raised  mass  of  plumage  due  to  an  excessive 
development  of  soft  feathers  about  the  tail  of  Cochins 
and  some  other  fowls. 

Cushion  Comb. — The  name  applied  in  England  to  the 
comb  of  the  Silky;  a  circular  cushion  of  flesh  with  a 
number  of  small  protuberances  on  it.  Same  as  straw- 
berry comb. 

Cut.— A  deduction  made  from  the  score  of  a  fowl;  as 
a  cut  of  2  points. 

Cygnet.— A  young  swan. 

Daw  Eyed. — A  term  used  at  one  time  to  describe  game 
fowls  that  had  peculiar  eyes  resembling  those  of  a 
jackdaw,  which  were  of  a  pearl  color;  pigeons  with  eyes 
of  the  same  kind  are  said  to  be  pearl  eyed. 

Deaf-Ear.— The  ear  lobe. 

Debarred.— Barred  from  competition. 


264  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Deep  Bodied.— Said  of  fowls  that  have  a  good  depth 
of  body  from  the  top  of  the  back  to  the  lower  side  of 
the  breastbone. 

Defect.— Any  blemish,  imperfection,  fault,  or  lack  of 
some  feature  or  quality. 

Dewlap.— A  growth  of  loose  skin  below  the  beak  or 
bill,  as  in  Brahmas  and  water  fowls.  Fig.  5. 

Diamond.— An  expression  formerly  used  in  place  of 
wing  bay.-  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Dished. — When  hollows  or  depressions  appear  in  the  bill 
of  a  water  fowl,  it  is  said  to  be  dished.     See  b,  Fig.  4. 
Disqualification. — A  defect  that  will  debar  a  fowl  from 
competition. 

Disqualified.— Condemned ;   unfit   for   exhibition. 
Double   Comb.— A   term   formerly   applied   to    all    combs 
except  the  single  comb. 

Double  Lacing.— A  double  ring  or  penciling  about  the 
outer  edge  of  a  feather.  Fig.  10.  See  sup- 
plementary lacing. 

Double  Mating. — A  system  of  mating  in 
which  males  fit  for  exhibition  are  produced 
from  one  pair  of  breeding  fowls,  and  fe- 
males fit  for  exhibition  are  produced  from 
another  pair. 

Down. — (1)   The  first  downy  covering  of 
young  chicks.     (2)  The  soft  cottonlike  part 
of  a  feather  below  the  web.     See  b,  Fig.  12. 
(3)    A   rnosslike   growth   between   the  toes. 
FIG.  10  Drake.— A  male  duck. 

Dubbing. — The  cutting  off  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes  of  game  fowls. 

Duck. — A  species  of  water  fowl,  including  both  sexes; 
also,  a  female  of  the  species,  as  distinguished  from  the 
male. 

Duckling.— A  young  duck. 
Duck  Foot. — See  web  foot. 

Duck  Footed.— A  fowl  is  said  to  be  duck  footed  when 
the  back  toe  is  carried  close  to  the  other  toes,  instead 
of  being  well  spread  out  behind.  Fig.  11. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


265 


FIG.  11 


Ear  Lobe. — The  fleshy  growth  below  the  ear;  this  may 
be  red,  white,  or  other  color,  according  to  the  variety. 
Same  as  deaf -ear.  See  5,  Fig.  1. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — Eggs  that  are 
suitable  for  incubation. 

Exhibition  Fowls. — A  fowl  suitable 
for  exhibition  in  a  show  room. 

Face. — On  a  fowl,  the  part  of  the 
head  about  the  eyes  that  is  bare  of 
feathers. 

Faking — A  term  equivalent  in  mean-  < 
ing  to  deceiving;  it  is  in  frequent  use 
by  poultrymen.  Faking  consists  in  re- 
moving or  dyeing  objectionable  feathers,  in  coloring 
shanks  and  feet,  in  removing  side  sprigs,  or  in  the 
use  of  other  unfair  means  to  win  a  prize  in  a  show 
room. 

Fancier.— A  breeder  of  poultry,  pigeons,  or  pet  stock. 
Fancy.— A  lax  term  for  fanciers  collectively. 
Feather. — One  of  the  appendages  peculiar  to  and  grow- 
ing  out    of   the    skin    of   a   fowl    or   a    bird,    collectively 
forming   the   plumage.     Fig.    12.     A 
feather    is    commonly    composed    of    the 
following    principal    parts:      web    a,    in 
which    the    barbs    are    stuck    together, 
forming     a     thin,     smooth     sheet;     the 
fluff,  or  down  b,  in  which  the  barbs  arc 
not  united;    the  shaft,   quill,   or  barrel, 
which    is    composed    of   a   lower    hollow 
and  tubular  part  c,   and  an  upper  part 
d,  which  is  filled  with  pith. 

Feather    Cell— The    cell    in    the    body 
from  which  a  feather  grows. 

Feather   Legged. — Said    of   fowls    that 
have   feathers   growing  on   the  sides   of 
the  shanks  and  toes;  booted.     See  25,  Fig.  1. 

Fillers.—  The    small    feathers    that    grow    between    the 
main  tail  feathers. 
Finish. — Gloss  on  plumage. 


FIG.   12 


2'S>  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

First-Cross  Fowls.— Fowls  resulting  from  the  first  cross- 
ing of  standard-bred  males  and  females  of  different 
breeds. 

Flat  Shin. — A  flat  part  on  the  shank  of  a  game  fowl. 

Flight  Coverts. — Short  feathers  that  grow  at  the  base 
of  the  flight  feathers  and  partly  cover  them.  See  38, 
Fig.  1. 

Flights,  or  Flight  Feathers. — The  primary  feathers  on 
the  wing  of  a  fowl.  See  37,  Fig.  1. 

Flow. — Said  of  feathers  that  hang  loosely  or  sweep 
ingly. 

Fluff. — (1)  The  downy  or  lower  part  of  a  feather;  see 
b,  Fig.  12.  (2)  The  profuse  soft  feathering  about  the 
thighs  and  abdomen.  See  32,  Fig.  1. 

Fluffing.— The  act  of  bending  or  breaking  the  shafts 
and  quills  of  the  feathers  in  the  fluff,  cushion,  and  tail 
feathering  of  Asiatic  Bantam  and  other  Asiatic  fowls, 
to  build  them  out  into  unnatural  size.  This  constitutes 
faking. 

Folded  Comb. — A  comb  that  falls  over  to  one  side  and 
folds  back,  forming  a  loop. 

Foreign  Color. — Any  color  found  on  a  fowl  that  is  not 
characteristic  of  or  standard  for  the  variety  to  which 
the  fowl  belongs. 

Form. — As  applied  to  fowls  in  the  show  room,  form 
refers  to  their  condition  and  finish. 

Foul  Feathers. — Feathers  that  are  marked  with  foreign 
color. 

Fowl. — A  domestic  cock,  hen,  cockerel,  or  pullet. 

Foxy. — See  rusty. 

Frizzle  Feathers.— Feathers  that  are  crinkled  or  curled. 

Frosting.— Irregular  markings  or  lacing  of  a  light 
color.  Similar  markings  of  a  dark  color  give  the  appear- 
ance of  mossiness. 

Furnished. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  furnished  when  it  has 
a  complete  growth  of  tail,  hackle,  and  saddle  plumage, 
and  a  well-developed  comb  and  other  head  points. 

Furnishings. — Same  as   hangers. 

Gaff. — A  steel  spur. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  267 

Gamy. — Like  a  game  fowl;  full  of  fight. 

Gay. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  gay  when  it  has  spangled, 
splashed,  or  colored  plumage  with  an  excessive  amount 
of  white  on  it. 

Gills. — An  improper  name  for  the  wattles. 

Gloss.— The  luster  on  the  surface  of  feathers. 

Gobbler. — A  male  turkey. 

Gray. — A  color  produced  by  a  mixture  of  black  and 
white;  it  is  of  different  shades,  according  to  the  pro- 
portions of  black  and  white,  as  in  the  plumage  of  Dark 
Brahmas  and  Silver-Gray  Dorkings. 

Ground  Color. — In  fowls,  the  main,  or  principal,  color 
in  the  plumage;  for  example,  in  a  Buff  Laced  Polish 
fowl,  the  buff  is  the  ground  color. 

Gullet. — The  opening  through  which  food  passes. 

Gypsy  Color.— Purple  color,  as  found  on  the  face  of  some 
game  fowls;  also  called  mulberry  color. 

Hackle  Feathers. — The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
on  the  neck  of  a  fowl;  more  plentiful  in  males  than  in 
females.  See  //,  Fig.  1.  See  hackle. 

Hangers. — An  improper  name  for  saddle  feathers. 

Hatch.— (1)  To  produce  young  from,  that  is,  to  cause 
young  to  develop  in  and  come  forth  from  an  egg  by 
either  natural  or  artificial  incubation.  (2)  A  brood 
hatched  at  one  sitting  or  one  incubation. 

Hard  Feathers.— Firm,  close  feathering,  such  as  is  found 
on  game  fowls. 

Hen. — A  mature   female   domestic  fowl. 

Hen  Feathered.— Said  of  a  male  fowl  with  a  tail  like 
a  hen,  as  in  the  males  of  Sebrights  and  some  varieties 
of  game  fowls. 

Hen  Tailed. — Same  as  hen  feathered. 

Henny.—A  term  applied  to  a  male  fowl,  usually  a  game, 
that  has  tail  or  other  plumage  resembling  that  of  a 
hen. 

High-in-Back. — A  term  used  in  England  to  describe 
hump  or  roach  back. 

Hock.— The  joint  between  the  thigh  and  the  shank.  See 
J7,  Fig.  1. 


263 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Hollowed  Place  in  Comb. — A  depression  in  the  comb  of 
a  fowl;  same  as  a  thumb  mark.     Fig.  24. 
Hood.— Neck  feathers  that  curve  forwards  over  the  head. 
Horn  Comb. — Same  as  antler  comb  and   V-shaped  comb. 
Horseshoe     Lacing. — Lacing     forming     a 
orseshoe     about     the     tip     of     a     feather. 
Fig.   13. 

Hump  Back. — A  fowl  with  a  hump  back 
is  one  that  has  a  knob,  lump,  or  prominence 
on  the  back. 

Hybrid. — The  offspring  from  two  birds  of 
different  species;  as  from  mating  a  gold- 
finch with  a  canary,  or  a  turkey  with  a 
guinea. 

Ideal. — Of    a    perfection    that    is    seldom 
FIG.  13          realized. 

Inbred  Fowl. — An  offspring  from   closely   related   fowls. 
Inbreeding. — Breeding,    or   following   a   course   of   breed- 
ing, from  nearly  related  fowls. 
Incubate. — See  hatch  and  sit. 

Irregular  Lacing. — Incomplete  or  imperfect  lacing  about 
the  edge  of  a  feather. 

Jaw. — In  a  fowl,  the  jaw  is  that  part 
of  the  head  that  supports  the  upper  and 
lower  mandibles. 

Keel.— (1)  The  lower  edge  of  the 
breastbone.  (2)  The  loose  flesh  and 
feathers  hanging  below  the  breast  in 
ducks  and  other  poultry. 

Knee  Joint. — Same  as  hock  joint.  See 
r/%  Fig.  1. 

Knob. — The  protuberance  on  a  goose 
at  the  juncture  of  the  head  and  the  bill.  FIG.  14 

Knock  Kneed. — A  malformation  of  the  legs  of  a  fowl, 
in  which  the  hock  joints  come  close  together  instead  of 
being  well  apart  as  they  should  be.  Fig.  14. 

Lacing. — The  edging  along  the  margin  of  a  feather;  it 
is  usually  darker  in  color  than  the  body  of  the  feather. 
Fig.  15. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


269 


FIG.  15 


FIG.  16 


Leader. — The  spike,  or  heel,  on  a  rose  comb — the  part 
that  extends  to  the  rear.  See  a,  Fig.  22. 

Leaf  Comb. — A  comb  consisting  of  two  small  sections, 
each  shaped  like  a  leaf.  Fig.  16. 

Leggy. — A  fowl  is  said  to 
be  leggy  when  it  has  too 
great  length  in  legs. 

Leg  and  Toe  Feathering. 
The  feathering  on  both  the 
shanks  and  feet;  booting. 
See  25,  Fig.  1. 

Lesser  Sickles.  —  The 
smaller  tail  feathers  next  to 
the  full,  flowing  sickles.  See 
29,  Fig.  1. 

Line  Breeding. — Breeding,  or  following  a  course  of 
breeding,  from  a  limited  number  of  original  fowls.  In 
line  breeding  the  fowls  mated  are  not  so  closely  related 
as  those  mated  in  inbreeding.  Line  breeding  is  really 
a  modified  form  of  inbreeding. 

Loop.— A  double  fold  in  the  comb,  as  in  a  Minorca 
female. 

Lopped  Comb.— A  comb  that  falls  over  on  either  side. 
Same  as  comb  over.  Figs.  8  and  24. 

Low  Built.— Said  of  a  fowl   that  is  very   short  in   the 
legs  and  hence  carries  its. body  close  to  the  ground. 
Lump  Comb.— Same  as  strawberry  comb. 
Made  Form.— The  form  that  may  be  produced  in  a  fowl 
by  training. 

Main  Tail  Feathers.— The  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail  under 
and  between  the  sickles  and  coverts.  See  31,  Fig.  1. 

Mandibles.— The  horny  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the 
beak  or  bill. 

Marbled.— A  term  used  to  describe  ticked  or  laced 
feathers  on  the  breast  of  Pyle  Game  cocks. 

Markings.— Striping,  lacing,  barring,  or  marks  of  any 
kind  on  the  plumage. 

Mazarine. — Deep-blue  or  purplish  markings  across  a 
black  feather. 


270 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Mealy. — A  term  used  to  describe  plumage  that  should 
be  one  solid  color  but  is  covered  with  irregular  dots  of 
mixed  or  faulty  color. 

Moon.— A  rounded  spot  of  color  tipping  the  feathers 
of  fowls  of  some  varieties. 

Mossiness. — An  effect  produced  by  irregular  dark  mark- 
ings. Fig.  17.  See  frosting. 

Molt. — (1)  To  cast  off  or 
shed  the  feathers  of  fowls. 
(2)  The  act  or  process  of 
molting.  (3)  The  season  or 
period  of  molting. 

Mottled.  —  Marked  with 
spots  or  blotches  of  different 
colors. 

Mulberry  Color.— See  gypsy 
color. 

Muff,   Muffle,   Muffling. — A 
growth  of  feathers  on  either 
side   of  the   head,   usually   seen   on   bearded  fowls,   and 
very  marked  in  Faverolles.     See  6,  Fig.  1. 

Natural  Form.— The  natural  appearance  of  a  fowl  with- 
out  training. 
Non-Sitter.— A  fowl  that  does  not  incubate  eggs. 

Novice. — A  beginner;  an  inexperienced 
person. 

Open  Barring. — Barring  in  which  the  bars 
are  wide  apart.  Fig.  18. 

Open  Lacing.— Narrow  lacing  about  the 
edge  of  a  feather  and  forming  a  ring 
around  a  spot  of  another  color,  giving  the 
feather  the  appearance  of  having  a  large 
open  center.  Fig.  19. 

Overhang.— A  term  used  by  poultrymen 
to  describe  the  overhanging  skull  as  found 
in  Aseel  Game,  Malay  Game,  and  Brahma 


FIG.  17 


FIG.  18 


FIG.  19 


fowls.     Some  pigeons,   also,   have   the   same   kind  of  a 
projection  on  the  skull. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  271 

Overlap.— To  lie  partly  over;  said  of  the  colors  on 
plumage  when  they  meet  on  a  ragged  edge,  giving  the 
appearance  of  one  color  overlapping  another. 

Parti-Colored.— Of  several  colors,  like  the  Light  Brahma 
or  Houdan. 

Pea  Comb.— A  small,  low  comb  divided  lengthwise  into 
three   parts,    and  having   the   appearance   of  three   small 
single  combs  placed  side  by  side,  as  on 
the  Brahma  and  Aseel.     Figs.  5  and  20. 
Pearl  Eyed. — See  daw  eyed. 
Pen. — (1)    An   enclosure.      (2)    A   fe- 
male swan. 

Penciling. — Narrow  lines  or  markings. 
The  term  penciling  is  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  markings  on  poultry:  (1)  The 
bars  on  the  feathers  of  Penciled  Ham- 
burgs.  (2)  The  concentric  lines  that  follow  the  outline  of 
the  feather  in  Dark  Brahmas  and  Partridge  Cochins.  Fig. 
21.  (3)  The  fine  gray  markings  on  Rouen  drakes.  (4) 
The  stippling  as  found  on  Leghorns  and  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  females. 

Pen  Manners. — The  behavior  of  fowls  in 
pens  in  the  show  room. 

Pen  of  Fowls. — In  the  show  room,  a  pen 
of  one  male  and  four  females. 

Peppered. — Plumage    is    said    to    be    pep- 
pered when  it  is  dotted  with  spots. 

Pile. — The  spelling  used  in   England  for 
Pyle. 

Pinion. — (1)     The    outermost    section    of 
the    wing    of    a    bird,    bearing    the    pinion 
feathers.     (2)   To  cut  off  the  outer  part  of  a  bird's  wing 
that  bears  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  feathers  used 
in  flying,  in  order  to  prevent  flying. 

Pit. — An    enclosed    space    in    which    fowls    are    pitted 
against  each  other;  hence,  a  fighting  place  for  fowls. 
Plumage. — The  feathers  and  down. 

Point. — One  of  the  tapering,  sharp-ended  serrations  of 
the  upper  part  of  a  single  comb.  See  a,  Fig.  25. 


272  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Poulard.— A  female  fowl,  usually  a  pullet,  in  which  the 
egg-producing  organs  have  been  destroyed. 

Poult.— A  young  turkey. 

Poultry. — All  domestic  fowls. 

Prepotency. — The  superiority  of  one  parent  over  the 
other  in  transmitting  characters  to  the  offspring;  that 
is,  in  stamping  its  individuality  on  the  offspring. 

Primaries.— The  flight  feathers.     See  37,  Fig.  1. 

Producer.— A  fowl  that  produces  offspring  better  than 
itself. 

Pullet.— A  female  fowl  less  than  a  year  old.  Show- 
room practice  allows  a  fowl  to  be  exhibited  as  a  pullet 
during  the  entire  show  season  that  follows  the  hatching. 

Pullet  Bred. — Bred  in  line  from  a  mating  made  ex- 
pressly for  producing  pullets  for  exhibition.  Both  males 
and  females  from  such  matings  are  called  pullet  bred. 
Compare  with  cockerel  bred. 

Pure  Bred. — Fowls  that  have  no  alien  blood  in  them 
are  said  to  be  pure  bred. 

Purply.—The  effect  produced  by  purple  bars  across  a 
black  feather. 

Quill.— See  feather,  and  c.  Fig.  12. 

Quill  Bound.— A  condition  in  which  the  feather  is 
retained  in  its  sheath,  instead  of  the  sheath  cracking 
and  falling  off. 

Racy. — A  fowl  that  is  slender,  trim,  active,  alert,  or 
tight  feathered  is  said  to  be  racy. 

Reachy.— Said  of  fowls  that  have  an  upright  carriage 
and  are  tall,  such  as  game  fowls. 

Ribbon. — The  bright-blue  band  across  the  wings  of 
Rouen  and  other  ducks. 

Roach  Back.— A  back  with  a  hump;  same  as  hump 
back.  . 

Rocker  Comb.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  Wyan- 
dotte  comb;  same  as  cradle  comb. 

Rooster. — Common  name  for  a  cock  or  a  cockerel. 

Rose  Comb. — A  broad,  level  comb,  wide  in  front,  taper- 
ing to  a  spike,  or  point,  in  the  rear,  and  covered  on 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


273 


the  top  with  small  projections,  or  points,  as  in  Hamburgs 
and  Rose-Comb  Bantams.     Fig.  22.     At 
a  is  shown  the  spike. 

Rosy  Wings. — Wings  of  Pyle  females, 
which  are  marked  with  salmon  color; 
wings  of  the  same  color  were  formerly 
called  foxy  colored. 

Ruff. — Same  as  muff. 

Rusty  Color.  —  The  reddish-brown 
shadings  on  the  outside  of  the  wings  ^IG.  22 

of    Black-Breasted    Red    Game    and    Brown    Leghorn    fe- 
males.    In  England,  the  same  shading  is  called  foxy. 

Saddle.— That  portion  of  the  back  of  a  male  fowl 
between  the  middle  of  the  back  and  the  base  of  the  tail. 

Saddle  Feathers. — The  flowing  feathers  growing  from  the 
saddle  of  a  fowl. 

Saddle  Hackles.— The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
from  the  saddle  of  a  male  and  hang  down  on  both  sides 
of  the  body;  also  called  saddle  hangers  and  saddle 
feathers.  See  27,  Fig.  1. 

Salmon.— A  reddish  or  pinkish  orange  color,  like  that 
found  on  the  breast  of  Red  Pyle  Game  females  and 
Brown  Leghorn  females. 

Scales.— Thin,  horny  growths  covering  the  shanks  and 
feet. 

Scaly  Leg.— A  diseased  condition  of  the  shanks  and 
feet,  caused  by  the  scaly-leg  mite. 

Secondaries. — The  long  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  that 
grow  on  the  second  joint  or  next  to  and  above  the 
primaries.  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Section.— A  distinctly  defined  part  of  a  standard-bred 
fowl. 

Self-Color. — A    uniform    color. 

Serrated. — Notched  along  the  edge  like   a  saw. 

Serration.— One  of  the  points  of  a  single  comb.  See 
a,  Fig.  25. 

Shaft.— See  feather,   and  d,  Fig.   12. 

Shafty. — A  term  describing  a  dark-colored  feather  with 
a  light  shaft.  Fig.  23. 


274 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Shank. — That  part  of  the  leg  between  the  toes  and  the 
hock  joint.     See  18,  Fig.  1. 

Shank  Feathers. — Feathers  growing  on 
the  outside  edge  of  the  shank.  See  ^5, 
Fig.  1. 

Shank  Line. — A  line  that  would  be 
formed  by  drawing  a  straight  line  along  the 
rear  edge  of  the  shank  upwards  through  the 
body  of  a  fowl. 

Sheath. — The  covering  over  a  new 
feather;  it  splits  and  falls  off  as  the  feather 
develops. 

Sheen. — The      glistening     brightness,      or 
gloss,  on  plumage. 

Shoulder. — The   front   or  upper  part  of  the   wing;   it  is 
round  or  bow    shaped   and   is   hidden    in   fowls   of   some 
breeds  by  the  breast  plumage  and  hackle;  in  game  fowls 
it  stands  out  prominently.     See  34,  Fig.  1. 
Shoulder  Butt. — Same  as  shoulder. 

Show-Room  Form. — The   form   that   a   fowl   has   in   the 
show  room. 

Sickles. — The     top     pair     of     curved 
feathers  in  the  tail  of  male  fowls.     One 
or  two  pairs  similar  to  these,  but  below 
them,  are  called  the  lesser  sickles.     See 
28  and  29,  Fig.  1. 
Side  Spike. — Same  as  side  sprig. 
Side      Sprig. — An      extra      point,      or 
growth,  at  the  side  or  near  the  end  of 
a   single   comb.      Fig.    24.  WHWf, 

•  Silvery. — A  term  applied  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  shoulders  of  barred 
fowls  that  are  deficient  in  barring 
and  that  have  light,  or  silvery  mark- 
ings on  these  parts  instead  of  the  customary  barring. 
Single  Color. — Same  as  whole  color. 

Single   Comb.— A.    thin,    serrated,    fleshy    growth   on    the 
top  of  the  head  of  a  fowl,   as  in  Plymouth   Rocks   and 


FIG.  24 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


275 


Leghorns.     Fig.    25.     At    a   is   one   of   the    serrations,    or 
points;  at  b,  the  blade. 

Single  Mating.— A   mating   from   which   both   males   and 
females  fit  for   exhibition  are  produced 
from   a   single   pair   of   breeding   fowls.- 
See  double  mating. 

Sit. — To    cover    eggs     for    hatching;  | 
incubate. 

Sitters. — Fowls  that  sit   on  and  incu- 1 
bate  eggs.     The  sitting  proclivities   are 
stronger  in  some  breeds  than  in  others. 
Fowls   in   which   the   sitting  proclivities 
are  weak  are  said  to  be  non-sitters. 

Sitting. — The    act    of    sitting    to    incu-  FlG-  25 

bate  eggs;  also,  the  number  of  eggs  for  a  sitting,  usually 
from  11  to   15.     See  clutch. 

Slipped  Wing. — A  wing  in  which  the 
light,  or  secondary,  wing  feathers  hang 
loose  or  out  of  place.  Fig.  26. 

Smooth     Legs. — Legs     that     have     no 
feathers,  stubs,  or  down  on  the  shanks. 
Smut. — A  term  applied  to  dark  color 
overlying  any  section  of  a  fowl. 
FIG.  26  Solid    Color. — Of    one    uniform    color 

throughout;  self-color. 

Spangle. — A  dark  marking  at  the  point, 
or  tip,  of  a  feather.  Fig.  27. 

Spike. — The  rear  point  on  a  rose  comb; 
also  sometimes  called  a  leader.  See  a, 
Fig.  22. 

Splashed  Feathers. — Feathers  in  which 
there  is  an  uneven  mixture  of  color. 

Split  Crest. — A  rounded  crest  that  is 
split  and  falls  over  on  both  sides. 

Sport. — A  fowl  that  varies  from  the 
normal  type;  a  white  offspring  from  black 
parents. 


FIG.  27 


Spur.— A  horny  growth  on  the  inside  of  the  shank  of 
a  cock.     See  <?j,  Fig.  1. 


276 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


FIG.  28 


Squirrel    Tail. — A    tail    in    which    the    feathers    are    car- 
ried so  far  forward  as  almost  to  touch  the  head,  like  the 
tail  of  a  squirrel.     Fig.   28. 

Stag. — A  young  game  cock;  also, 
a  turkey  cock. 

Standard  Mating. — A  mating  in 
which  the  fowls  conform  to  Stand- 
ard description;  sometimes  called 
single  mating  when  the  purpose  is 
the  production  of  both  males  and 
females. 

Station. — Manner  of  standing;  at- 
titude, or  pose  of  a  fowl.  A  fowl 
is  said  to  have  good  station  when 
it  has  a  form  typical  of  the  breed 
to  which  it  belongs,  has  good  symmetry,  and  the  proper 
height  and  reach.  Station  is  a  term  applied  more 
especially  to  game  fowls.  Compare  with  carriage. 

Steppings. — A  term  used  in  England  to  describe  the 
effect  produced  by  the  ends  of  the  secondary  feathers, 
each  one  of  which  is  shorter  than  the  one  immediately 
below  it,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  flight  of  steps. 

Stippling. — The  effect  produced  on  plumage  by  dots 
of  dark  and  of  light  shades  of  color,  as  in  Brown  Leg- 
horn females.  Fig.  29. 

Strain.— Fowls  of  one  variety  that  have  been  bred  in 
line  for  a  number  of  generations  from  a 
few  original  fowls. 

Strawberry  C  o  m'b. — A 
lump  comb,  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  strawberry  in 
shape,  as  in  Malays  and 
Silkies.  Fig.  30. 

Striping. — Markings     of 
dark    color    that    extend 
down    the    middle    of    a 
FIG.  29          feather    and    taper    to    a 
point  near   the  tip   of  the  feather,  as  in  Light  Brahmas, 
Brown  Leghorns,  and  some  other  fowls.     Fig.  31. 


FIG.  30 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


277 


Stub. — A  short  piece  of  the  quill  of  a  feather;  especially, 
a    short    piece    of    the    quill    of    a    feather    occasionally 
found     on    the    shanks     of    smooth-legged 
fowls. 

Style. — A  fowl  is  said  to  have  style  when 
it  presents  a  fine,  spirited  appearance,  and 
has  good  symmetry,  station,  and  carriage. 

Supplementary  Lacing. — An  outside  edg- 
ing or  lacing  of  a  different  shade  or  tint 
than  the  color  next  to  it,  that  is  found  on 
both  laced  and  solid  feathers.  When  it 
occurs  on  laced  feathers,  as  in  edging  of 
white  around  the  outside  of  black  lacing, 
it  is  the  same  as  double  lacing.  Fig.  10. 

Surface  Color. — The  color  on  the  parts 
ot  the  leathers  exposed  to  view. 

Sword  Feather. — A  main  tail  feather  of  1 
fe  Japanese  Bantam  male. 

Symmetry. — The  blending  of  all  sections 
or  parts  of  a  fowl  into  a  harmonious  whole. 

Tail  Coverts. — The  curved,  soft  leathers 
about  the  sides  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
tail  feathers.  See  30,  Fig.  1. 

Tail  Feathers.— The  stiff,  or  main,  feathers  of  the  tail. 
See  31,  Fig.  1. 

Team. — Three  or  more  fowls  shown  by  one  exhibitor. 

Thigh.— The  upper  segment  of  the  leg;  it  is  included 
between  the  body  of  the  fowl  and  the  upper  extremity 
of  what  is  known  as  the  drumstick. 

Thoroughbred.— (1)  Of  the  best  01  the  purest  breeding; 
in  this  sense,  now  generally  replaced  by  the  term 
standard  bred.  (2)  A  term  descriptive  of  game  cocks  of 
high  courage  and  spirits. 

Throat.— Same  as  gullet. 

Fhumb  Mark. — (1)  A  hollow  place  in  the  side  of  a 
single  comb.  Fig.  24.  (2)  An  opening  or  split  in  the 
front  or  center  of  a  rose  comb. 

Ticked.— Plumage  is  ticked  when  it  has  spots  of  color 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  plumagt. 


FIG.  31 


278  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Tight  Feathered. — Fowls  are  said  to  be   tight  feathered 
when  the  feathers  lie  close  to  the  body;  close  feathered. 
Tom.— A  male  turkey;  a  gobbler. 

Top    Color.— The    color    of    the    plumage    on    the    back. 
Topknot. — A   tufted   growth   of   feathers   on   the   top   of 
the  head  of  a  fowl;  a  crest.     Figs.  9  and  16. 

Training. — The  teaching  or  drilling  of  a  fowl   to  pose 
in  the  show  room. 
Tricolored.—Ol  three  colors. 

Trimming. — A  fraudulent  way  of  preparing  a  fowl  for 
the  show  room.  See  faking. 

Trio. — Three;  in  poultry,  a  male  and  two  females. 
Trunk. — The  body  of  a  fowl,  as  distinguished  from  its 
appendages,  the  legs,  neck,  head,  etc. 

Tucked  Up. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  tucked  up  when  the 
abdomen  lacks  fulness  and  makes  a  sharp  upward  turn 
to  the  tail,  as  in  game  fowls. 

Twisted  Comb.— A  comb   twisted   into   curves   or   some 
other  faulty  shape.     Fig.  32. 

Type.— The  form  peculiar  to  any 
breed. 

Under  Plumage. — The  fluff  or  under 
part  of  the  plumage,  seen  only  when 
the  feathers  are  separated.  See  feather, 
and  b,  Fig.  12. 

Utility    Fowl. — A    fowl    for    egg    pro- 
duction   and    market    purposes,    as    dis- 
tinguished from  an  exhibition  fowl. 
FIG.  32  Variety. — A    subdivision    of    a   breed; 

distinguished  from  other  varieties  of  the  same  breed  by 
the  plumage  colors.     See  breed. 

V -Shaped  Comb. — A  comb  naving  two  points  or  prongs; 
also  called  antler  comb,  and  Horn  comb.  Fig.  2. 

Vulture  Hock. — A  nock  like  that  of  a  vulture,  which  has 
stiff  leathers  growing  from  the  hock  joint.    See  16,  Fig.  1. 
Washiness.— A   state   or   quality   of   a   feather    that   ap- 
pears to  have  had  the  color  washed  out  of  it. 

Waster.— A  fowl  unfit  for  breeding  purposes,  but  fit 
for  food. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  279 

Wattles.— Pendant  growths  of  flesh  that  hang  on  each 
side  of  the  beak;  most  prominently  developed  in  male 
fowls. 

Web.— (1)  The  upper  part  of  a  feather  where  the  barbs 
are  stuck  together;  the  flat,  thin  feather  structure  beyond 
the  fluff  part  of  the  feather.  See  feather  and  a,  Fig.  12. 
(2)  The  skin  growing  between  the  toes.  (3)  The  skin 
between  the  joints  of  the  wing. 

Web  Foot. — A  foot  with  webs  between  the  toes.  When 
a  fowl  other  than  a  water  fowl  has  a  foot  with  webs 
between  the  toes,  it  is  said  to  have  a  web  foot. 

Wheaten.— An  uneven  brown  like  that  on  ripe  standing 
wheat;  peculiar  to  some  females  of  the  Black-Breasted 
Red  Games  and  the  Faverolles. 

Whip  Tail.— The  fine,  slim  tail  of  the  modern  game  or 
game  bantam  fowl. 

Whiskers.— Feathers  growing  from  the  side  of  the  face; 
same  as  muff.  Sometimes  applied  to  the  muffling  below 
the  beak.  See  d,  Fig.  1. 

Whole  Color.— A  fowl  is  said  to  be  of  a  whole  color 
when  all  of  its  plumage  is  of  one  color,  as  buff  or 
black,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  all  the  plumage  must 
be  of  one  shade  of  the  color. 

Willow  Color. — A  greenish  yellow  color  peculiar  to 
the  shanks  of  some  game  fowls. 

Wing  Bar.— A  bar  of  dark  color  across  the  middle  of 
a  wing.  See  55,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Bay. — A  triangular  surface 
showing  on  the  wing  where  it  is  folded; 
located  between  the  wing  bar  and  the 
point  of  the  wing.  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Bow. — The  surface  of  the  wing 
between  the  wing  bar  and  the  shoulder. 
See  33,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Butts.— The  ends  of  the  flight 
feathers;  a  misnomer  for  wing  points. 

Wing     Coverts.— The     feathers     that  FlG-  33 

cover  the  roots  of  the  secondary  flight  feathers. 


280  PIGEONS 

Wing  Fronts. — The  fronts  of  the  wings,  properly  called 
shoulders;  improperly  called  wing  butts. 

Wing  Points. — The  extreme  outer  ends  of  the  flight 
feathers. 

Work,  Full  of  Work. — A  term  used  in  England  to  de- 
scribe a  well-finished  rose  comb,  the  points  of  which  are 
perfect  or  nearly  perfect. 

Wry  Tail. — A  tail  carried  to  one  side.     Fig.  33. 


PIGEONS 


VARIETIES 

There  are  almost  innumerable  breeds  and  varieties  ot 
pigeons.  The  names  of  the  most  common  are  given  in 
the  following  list: 

Archangels. 

Barbs.— Black,  White,  Red,  Yellow,  Dun. 

Berlin  Tumblers. — Red,  Yellow,  Blue,  Black. 

Blondinettes. — Spangled  or  Laced,  Brown  or  Laced, 
Black  or  Laced,  Blue  or  Laced,  Sulphur  or  Laced. 

Breasters. — Black,  Yellow,  Red,  Blue. 

Brunettes. 

Brunswicks. 

Burmese,  or  Leghorn  Runts. 

Capuchins. 

Carneau. — Red,  Yellow,  Rose-Wing  Red,  miscellaneous 
colors. 

Carriers. — Black,  Dun,  Blue,  White. 

Cit  mulets. 

Damascenes. 

Dragoons. — Blue,  Silver  (brown  bars),  Silver  (black 
bars),  Red,  Yellow,  White. 

Egyptian  Swifts. — Blue,  Black,  White,  Red,  Yellow, 
Speckled,  Mottled. 


PIGEONS  281 

Exhibition  Homers. — Black,  Blue,  Checkered,  White, 
Yellow,  Red,  Red  or  Red  Checkered,  Silver  or  Silver 
Dun. 

Fairies. — Red,   Black,   Yellow,   Blue. 

Fantails.— Blue,  Silver,  Black,  White,  Yellow,  Red,  Sad- 
dle Backs,  Silkies,  Frizzled. 

Fire  Pigeons. 

Flying  Antwerp*. — Dun,  Blue,  Blue  Checker,  Red 
Checker. 

Flying  Tumblers,  or  Rollers. — Black,  Red,  Blue,  Silver, 
Yellow,  Black  Rosewing,  Red  Rosewing,  Yellow  Rose- 
wing,  Black  Mottle,  Red  Mottle,  Yellow  Mottle,  Red 
Breasted  (white  sides),  Black '  Breasted  (white  sides), 
Blue  Breasted  (white  sides),  Yellow  Breasted  (white 
sides),  Black  Saddle,  Red  Saddle,  Yellow  Saddle,  Blue 
Saddle,  Silver  Saddle,  Black  Badge,  Red  Badge,  Yellow 
Badge,  Blue  Badge,  Silver  Badge,  Checkered  Badge, 
Bronze,  White. 

Frillbacks. 

Helmets. — Red,  Yellow,  Black. 

Highflyer. — Plain  Head  or  Crested,  Dun,  Red,  Yellow, 
miscellaneous  colors. 

Hollander.— Plain  Head,  Red,  Yellow,  Crested  Head, 
Yellow. 

Hungarian. — Many    colors. 

Hyacinths. 

Isabels. 

Jacobins. — Red,  Yellow,  Black,  Blue,  White,  Mottled. 

Lahores. 

Late. 

Magpies. — Blue,  Black,  Red,  Yellow. 

Maltese.— Black,  Blue,  Silver,  White,  Red,  Yellow, 
mixed  colors. 

Moreheads. 

Nuns.— Black,  Red,  Yellow. 

Oriental  Frills. — Same  colors  as  Satinettes. 

Owls. — African,  Blue,  Black-White,  Silver,  Checkered, 
White  (blue  tail),  White  (black  tail),  English,  Blue,  Blue 
Powdered,  Silver,  Black,  White,  Red,  Yellow,  Checkered. 


282  PIGEONS 

Pigmy  Pouters. — Red,  Yellow,  Black,  Blue,  Lavender, 
Silver,  Mealy,  Creamy,  Checkered,  White,  Red  (white 
bars),  Yellow  (white  bars),  Black  (pied),  Black  (white 
bars),  Blue  (pied),  Blue  (black  bars). 

Plain  Ice. — Blue,  Silver,  Powdered  Silver. 

Porcelains. 

Pouters. — Black  Pied,  Blue  Pied,  Red  Pied,  Yellow 
Pied,  White. 

Priests. — Red,  Yellow,  Black,  Blue. 

Quakers. 

Ruified  Neck  Moreheads. 

Runts.— Blue,  Silver,  Black,  White,  Pied. 

Satinettes. — Peaked,  Plain  Head. 

Scandaroons. — Red,  Yellow,  Black,  Blue,  White,  Red 
Saddled,  Yellow  Saddled,  Black  Saddled,  Blue  Saddled. 

Shields. 

Short-Faced  Tumblers. — Almonds;  Agates,  Red  Yellow; 
Mottles,  Black;  Rosewings,  Black,  Red;  Splashes;  Whole- 
feathers,  Red,  Yellow;  Kites;  Blues,  Balds,  Blue,  Silver, 
Red,  Black,  Yellow;  Beards,  Blue,  Silver,  Red,  Black, 
Yellow. 

Show  Antwerps. — Silver  Dun,  Blue,  Blue  Checker,  Red 
Checker. 

Snells. 

Spot  Fairies. 

Spots. — Black,  Blue,  Red,  Yellow. 

Starlings. 

Suabians. 

Swallows. — Red,   Yellow,   Blue,   Black,   Checkered. 

Swiss,  or  Crescents. — Clear  Legged,  Booted,  Long 
Muffled. 

Swiss  Mandaine. — Many  colors. 

Tippler. — Solid  and  mixed  colors. 

Trumpeters. — Black,  Black  Rosewing,  Black  Mottle,  Red 
Mottle,  White. 

Turbiteens. — 'Plain  Head,  Point  Crest  or  Shell  Crown; 
Red,  Yellow,  Black,  Blue,  Silver. 


PIGEONS  283 

Turbits. — Yellow,  Red,   Blue,   Silver,   Black,   Checkered, 
Creamy,  White  Bars. 
Ural  Ice. — Light,   Dark. 
Victorias. 
Whiskered  Owls. 
White  King. 


TERMS   USED   BY   PIGEON   FANCIERS 

The  following  is  a  glossary  of  the  terms  in  common  use 
by  pigeon  fanciers: 

Arrow  Pointed. — In  the  form  of  an  arrow.  Example, 
the  penciling  or  lacing  of  a  Blondinette. 

Bald  or  Baldhead. — The  white  head  of  a  colored  pigeon. 
Example,  the  Bald  Tumbler. 

Barrel-Headed. — An  elongated  skull,  free  from  angles. 
Example,  the  Show  Homer. 

Bar   (tail). — The  colored  band  at  extremity  o*  tail. 

Bars  (wing). — The  bands  of  black  or  other  colors  across 
the  lower  part  of  the  wing.  Example,  the  Blue  Dragoon. 

Beard. — A  clearly  denned  V-shaped  patch  of  white 
feathers  on  the  throat,,  directly  under  the  lower  mandible. 
Example,  the  Long-Faced  Beard  Tumbler. 

Beetle  Brow. — Overhanging  eye  wattles,  as  seen  in  soft- 
eyed  Carriers. 

Bib. — The  colored  feathering  running  in  clearly  denned 
outline  below  the  head,  along  the  throat  and  upper  part 
of  the  breast.  Example,  the  Nun. 

Bishopped. — Having  a  patch  of  white  feathers  at  the 
butt  end  of  the  wing. 

Blaze. — A  white  mark  on  a  colored  pigeon  (generally 
on  the  forehead).  Example,  the  Blaze-Face. 

Bolting  Eye. — An  eye  that  is  prominent,  wild  looking, 
and  staring.  Example,  a  young  carrier. 

Box  Beak. — A  beak  both  mandibles  of  which  are  uni- 
form in  strength  and  shape  and  close  fitting.  Example, 
the  Carrier. 


284  PIGEONS 

Broken  (in  feather). — An  indiscriminate  mixture  of 
variously  colored  feathers.  Example,  the  Almond 
Tumbler. 

Broken  (in  eye). — An  erratic  coloring  of  the  iris. 

Bull  Eye. — An  eye,  the  iris  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
pupil,  is  very  dark  in  color.  Example,  the  White 
Dragoon. 

Cap. — A  colored  covering  at  the  top  of  the  head  above 
the  eye.  Example,  the  Swallow. 

Carriage. — The  natural  position  of  a  pigeon. 

Cere. — The  skin-like  substance  around  the  eye.  Exam- 
ple, the  Dragoon. 

Chain. — An  inverted  growth  of  feathering  on  each  side 
of  the  neck.  Example,  the  Jacobin. 

Checker. — Two  distinct  shades  of  one  color.  Example, 
the  Checkered  Dragoon. 

Chuck. — The  V-shaped  patch  of  white  under  the  lower 
mandible.  Example,  the  Beard  Tumbler. 

Clean-Leg. — Free  from  feathering  below  the  hock. 

Clean-Cut. — Evenly  defined. 

Condition. — Robust  health  and  perfection  of  plumage. 

Crescent. — A  half-moon  shaped  mark  on  the  breast. 
Example,  the  Suabian. 

Crest. — An  inverted  growth  of  feathers  at  the  back  of 
the  head.  Example,  the  Turbit. 

Crop. — The  craw,  or  first  stomach. 

Down-Faced. — Downward  contortion  of  the  beak. 

Dewlap.— (See  Gullet.) 

Eye  Wattles. — The  fleshy  excrescence  around  the  eye 
(chiefly  applied  to  Carriers  and  Barbs). 

Feather-Legged. — Feathered  below  the  hocks.  Example, 
the  Blondinette. 

Flights  (outer  or  primary). — The  first  ten  feathers  of 
each  wing. 

Flights  (inner  or  secondary). — The  remaining  long 
feathers  of  the  wing. 

Foul-Thighed. — Colored  feathers  on  white  thighs. 


PIGEONS  285 

Frill. — A  fringe  of  feathers  on  the  breast,  growing  in 
inverted  position  from  the  throat  downwards.  Example, 
the  Turbit. 

Frog-Shaped. — Depressed  in  crown,  but  free  from  angles 
and  not  flat. 

Gay. — Showing  too  much  white  (as  applied  to  the  crop 
markings  of  a  Pouter  and  the  shoulder  markings  of  a 
Mottled  Tumbler). 

Girth. — The  waist  of  the  Pouter. 

Gullet. — An  abnormal  development  of  loose  skin  ex- 
tending from  the  lower  mandible  to  the  top  of  the  neck. 
Example,  the  Owl. 

Hackle. — The  lower  feathers  at  the  back  of  the  neck. 

Handkerchief  Markings. — A  triangular  shaped  patch  of 
white  feathers  on  the  back  of  a  colored  pigeon.  Example, 
the  Mottled  Tumbler. 

Hood. — The  upper  covering  of  the  head.  Example,  the 
Jacobin. 

Jew  Wattle. — The  wattle  on  the  lower  mandible. 

Keel. — The  lower  part  of  the  breast. 

Lacing  or  Penciling. — Clearly  defined  markings,  around 
the  outer  edge  of  a  feather.  Example,  the  Blondinette. 

Limb. — The  leg  and  thigh  (as  applied  to  the  Pouter). 

Mandible. — A  portion  of  the  beak. 

Mane. — The  ridge  of  feathers  at  the  back  of  the  neck. 
Example,  the  Jacobin. 

Mealy. — Undecided  color,  generally  applied  to  Silver- 
Dun  Antwerps  and  Homers. 

Muffed. — Having  a  covering  of  feathers  on  the  hocks, 
legs,  and  feet.  Example,  the  Trumpeter. 

Peak. — Pointed  feathers  at  the  back  of  the  head.  Exam- 
ple, the  Turbit. 

Pinch-Eyed. — Irregularity  of  outline  as  applied  to  the 
eye  cere  or  eye  wattle.  Example,  the  Dragoon. 

Profile.— The  side  face. 

Rose  (breast). — The  rose-like  feathering  on  the  breast 
of  the  Owl. 


286  PIGEONS 

Rose  (feather). — The  shoulder  markings  of  the  Pouter. 
Mottled  Trumpeter,  and  Tumbler;  the  same  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  radiating  point  of  the  hood,  mane,  and 
chain  of  the  Jacobin. 

Rose  (head). — The  feathering  on  the  frontal  of  the 
Trumpeter. 

Rosette. — Feathering   on   the   breast,   in   the   form   of 
rose.     Example,  the  Owl. 

Saddle. — The  upper  portion  of  the  back. 

Self-Colored. — One  color  only. 

Shell. — The  shell-shaped  growth  of  feathers  at  the  back 
of  the  head.  Example,  the  Swallow. 

Shod  (as  applied  to  the  Fantail). — Deflecture  of  the 
lower  feathers  of  the  tail. 

Skull. — The  upper  portion  of  the  head. 

Slobbered  (as  applied  to  the  cut  of  a  Baldhead  Tumbler). 
Indistinct  and  uneven. 

Snakey. — Serpentine  in  shape.  Example,  the  head  and 
neck  of  the  Magpie. 

Snip. — A  clearly  defined  elongated  spot  of  white,  gener- 
ally on  the  forehead.  Example,  the  Snip  (German  Toy). 

Solid  Color.— (See  Self-Colored). 

Spangled. — A  "broken"  arrangement  of  feathering. 

Spindle-Beaked. — Having  a  beak  that  is  long  and  thin. 

Splash. — An  indiscriminate  mixture  of  several  colors. 
Example,  the  Splash  Short-Faced  Tumbler. 

Spot. — A  colored  mark  on  a  white  pigeon,  generally  on 
the  frontal  or  forehead. 

Squab. — A  very  young  pigeon,  pinfeathered. 

Squeaker. — A  (feathered)  young  pigeon,  just  learning 
to  feed. 

Stockings. — The  feathering  on  the  thighs  and  legs. 
Example,  the  Pouter. 

Stop. — An  abrupt  termination  of  the  skull  at  the  base 
of  the  beak.  Example,  the  Short-Faced  Tumbler. 

Tuft. — An  inverted  growth  of  feathers  behind  the  wat- 
tle. Example,  the  Priest. 


ARITHMETIC  287 

Toys. — Varieties  of  which  color  and  markings  are  the 
chief  properties. 

Vent. — The  passage  from  the  body. 

Veil. — Applied  to  the  head  markings  of  the  Nun. 

Wattle  (beak). — The  fleshy  excrescence  on  the  beak. 

Whiskers. — The  feathers  between  the  root  of  the  beak 
and  the  base  of  the  eye. 

Whole  Feather. — A  self-colored  pigeon. 


ARITHMETIC 


MEASURES    OF   EXTENSION 

Measures  of  extension  are  used  in  measuring  lengths  (dis- 
tances), surfaces  (areas),  and  solids  (volumes),  and  are 
divided,  accordingly,  into  linear  measure,  square  measure,  and 
cubic  measure. 

Linear  measure  has  one  dimension  (length),  square  measure 
has  two  dimensions  (length  and  breadth),  and  cubic  measure 
has  three  dimensions  (length,  breadth,  and  thickness). 

LINEAR  MEASURE 

12    inches  (in.) =1  foot ft. 

3    feet =1  yard yd. 

5£  yards - 1  rod rd. 

320    rods =1  mile ml. 

in.  ft.  yd.      rd.    mi. 

12  =        1 


36=        3 

1 

198=       16^ 

\=        5|=     i 

63,360  =  5,280 

=  1,760  =320=1 

SQUARE 

MEASURE 

144    square  inches  (sq.  in.) 

,  .  .  =  1  square  foot.  .  .  . 

..  sq.  ft. 

9    square  feet  

.  .  .  =  1  square  yard  .  .  . 

.  .  sq.  yd. 

301  square  yards  

.  .  .  =  1  square  rod  

.  .   sq.  rd. 

160    square  rods..  .  

.  .  .  =  1  acre  

..   A. 

640    acres.  .  . 

.  .  =  1  square  mile.  .  . 

.  .  so.  mi. 

288  ARITHMETIC 

sq.  in.  sq.  ft.  sq.  yd.         sq.  rd.       A.  JJJ" 

TO*. 

144=  1 

1,296=  9   =  1 

39,204=  272^=  30|=  1 

6,272,640=        43,560   =        4,840  =        160=     1 
4,014,489,600  =  27,878,400   =3,097,600   =102,400  =  640=1 

SURVEYORS'  SQUARE  MEASURE 

625  square  links  (sq.  li.) =1  square  rod    . .   sq.  rd. 

16  square  rods =  1  square  chain  .    sq.  ch. 

10  square  chains. =1  acre A. 

640  acres =1  square  mile  . .    sq.  mi. 

36  square  miles  (6  miles  square)  . .  .  =  1  township Tp. 

A  square  measuring  208.71  ft.  on  each  side  contains  1  A. 
The  following  are  the  comparative  sizes,  in  square  yards, 
of  acres  in  different  places: 


sq.  yd. 
England  and  America  4,840 

Scotland 6,150 

Ireland 7,840 

Hamburg 11,545 


sq.  yd. 

Amsterdam 9,722 

Dantzic 6,650 

France 11,960 

Prussia 3,053 


CUBIC    MEASURE 

1,728  cubic  inches  (cu.  in) =1  cubic  foot cu.  ft. 

27  cubic  feet =1  cubic  yard cu.  yd. 

128  cubic  feet =1  cord  of  wood. 

cu.  in.     at.  ft.  cu.  yd. 

1,728   =      1 
46,656   =   27   =    1 


MEASURES    OF   WEIGHT 

AVOIRDUPOIS    WEIGHT 

16  ounces  (oz.) =1  pound Ib. 

100  pounds =1  hundredweight  ....    cwt. 

20  hundredweight  \  „, 

2,000  pounds / = 

021.        Ib.     cwt.   T. 
16=        1 
1,600=    100=   1 
32,000  =  2,000  =  20  =  1 


ARITHMETIC  289 

LONG-TON  TABLE 

16  ounces  (oz.) =  1  pound. Ib. 

28  pounds =1  quarter qr. 

4  quarters =1  hundredweight  ....    cwt. 

20  hundredweight!  •  n> 

2,240  pounds / =lt°n T' 

oz.  Ib.     qr.  cwt.  3T. 

16=         1 
448=       28=    1 
1,792=     112=   4=    1 
35,840  =  2,240  =  80  =  20  =  1 

TROY  WEIGHT 

24  grains  (gr.) =1  pennyweight pwt. 

20  pennyweights =1  ounce oz. 

12  ounces =  1  pound Ib. 

gr.      pwt.     oz.     Ib. 
24=     1 
480=   20=    1 
5,760  =  240=12  =  1 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 

20  grains  (gr.) =1  scruple sc.  or  9 

3  scruples =1  dram dr.  or  5 

8  drams =1  ounce oz.  or  % 

12  ounces =1  pound Ib.  or  Ib. 

gr.         9       5       S     Ib 
20=     1 
60=     3=    1 
480=  24=   8=   1 
5,760  =  288  =  96  =  12  =  1 


MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 

LIQUID  MEASURE 

4    gills  (gi.) =1  pint pt. 

2    pints =1  quart qt. 

4    quarts =1  gallon gal. 

3U  gallons =1  barrel bbl. 

2    barrels  "I 

63    gallons) -1  hogshead hhd. 


290  ARITHMETIC 

gi.        pt.      qt.     gal.  bbl.  hhd. 
4  =      1 
8=     2  =      1 
32=     8=     4  =   1 
1,008  =  252  =  126  =  3H  =  1 
2,016  =  504  =  252  =  63   =2  =  1 

APOTHECARIES'   FLUID   MEASURE 

60  minims,  or  drops  (Vl\)  .  .  .  .  =  1  fluid  dram  ...........  £5 

8  fluid  drams  ..............  =1  fluid  ounce  ..........  fS 

16  fluid  ounces  .............  =1  pint  ................  O. 

.8  pints  ...................  =1  gallon  ...............  Cong. 


DRY  MEASURE 

2  pints  (pt.)  ................  =1  quart 

8  quarts  ...................  =1  peck 

4  pecks  ....................  =1  bushel 

pt.     qt.  pk.  bu. 
2=    1 
16=   8=1 
64  =  32  =  4  =  1 


AVOIRDUPOIS   POUNDS  IN  A  BUSHEL 


Commodities 

Lb. 

Commodities 

Lb. 

Barley  

48 

Malt       

34 

Beans  

60 

Oats 

32 

Buckwheat  

48 

Potatoes  

60 

Clover  seed  

60 

Rye 

56 

Corn  (shelled) 

56 

Timothy  seed 

45 

Corn  (in  the  ear)     

70 

Wheat              

60 

The  follov/ing  units  are  also  in  commercial  use: 

1  quintal  of  fish =100    Ib. 

1  barrel  of  flour =196    Ib. 

1  barrel  of  pork  or  beef =200    Ib. 

1  gallon  of  petroleum »     6f  Ib. 

1  keg  of  nails =  100    Ib. 


ARITHMETIC 


291 


MEASURES    OF   TIME 

60  seconds  (sec.) =  1  minute min. 

60  minutes =1  hour hr. 

24  hours =1  day da. 

7  days =1  week wk. 

4  weeks =1  month mo. 

12  months =1  year yr. 


100  years =1  century 

sec.  min.         hr.       da    wk.  yr. 

60=  1 

3,600=          60=         1 
86,400=     1,440=      24=     1 
604,800=    10,080=     168=     7  = 


C. 


31,556,936  =  525,948  =  8,765  =  365  = 


1 
52  = 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  months,  in  regular  order, 
with  the  number  of  days  each  contains: 


Days 

1.  January    (Jan.) 31 

2.  February  (Feb)   28 

3.  March    (Mar.)    31 

4.  April  (Apr.)   30 

5.  May    31 

6.  June    30 


Days 

7.  July    31 

8.  August   (Aug.)    31 

9.  September    (Sept.).. 30 

10.  October   (Oct.)    31 

11.  November  (Nov.)   ..30 

12.  December  (Dec.)   ...31 


In  leap  years,  1  da.  is  added  to  Feb.,  giving  it 
29  da.  The  following  lines  will  assist  in  remembering 
the  number  of  days  in  each  month: 

"Thirty  days  have  September, 
April,  June,  and  November; 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one, 
Except  the  second  month  alone, 
To  which  we  twenty-eight  assign, 
'Till  leap  year  gives  it  twenty-nine." 
In  many  business  transactions,  the  year  is  regarded  as 
360  da.,  or  12  mo.  of  30  da.  each. 


292  ARITHMETIC 

MEASURES   OF  ANGLES   OR  ARCS 

CIRCULAR  MEASURE 

60  seconds  (*) =1  minute ' 

60  minutes .  =  1  degree ° 

360  degrees =1  circle O 

60"=  1' 

3, 600"=        60'=     1° 
1,296,000"  =  21 ,600' =  360°  =1Q 

A  quadrant  is  one-fourth  of  a  circle,  or  90°;  a  sextant  is 
one-sixth  of  a  circle,  or  60°.  A  right  angle  (L)  contains  90°. 
The  unit  of  measurement  is  the  degree,  or  3|5  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle. 

Circular,  or  angular,  measure  is  used  principally  by  surveyors, 
navigators,  astronomers,  and  by  technical  men  generally,  for 
measuring  angles  and  arcs  of  circles. 


METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  MEASURES 

The  metric  system  is  based  on  the  meter,  which,  according 
to  the  U,  S.  Coast  and  Goedetic  Survey  Report  of  1884,  is 
equal  to  39.370432  in.  The  value  commonly  used  is  39.37  in. 
and  is  authorized  by  the  U.  S.  government. 

There  are  three  principal  units — the  meter,  the  liter  (pro- 
nounced 'lee-ter'),  and  the  gram,  the  units  of  length,  capacity, 
and  weight,  respectively.  Multiples  of  these  units  are  obtained 
by  prefixing  to  the  names  of  the  principal  units  the  Greek  words 
deca  (10),  hecto  (100),  and  kilo  (1,000);  the  submultiples,  or 
divisions,  are  obtained  by  prefixing  the  Latin  words  deci  Cnj), 
centi  (T&IT),  and  milt  ( TsVo).  These  prefixes  form  the  key  to  the 
entire  system.  The  abbreviations  of  the  principal  units  of 
these  submultiples  begin  with  a  small  letter,  while  those  of  the 
multiples  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


ARITHMETIC  293 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH 

10  millimeters  (mm.) =1  centimeter cm. 

10  centimeters =1  decimeter dm. 

10  decimeters =1  meter m. 

10  meters =1  decameter Dm. 

10  decameters =1  hectometer Hm. 

10  hectometers =1  kilometer Km. 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE  (NOT  LAND) 

100  square  millimeters 

(sq.  mm.) =1  square  centimeter  .  .  .sq.  cm. 

100  square  centimeters =1  square  decimeter sq.  dm. 

100  square  decimeters =1  square  meter sq.  m. 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 

1,000  cubic  millimeters 

(cu.  mm.) =1  cubic  centimeter  ....  cu.  cm. 

1,000  cubic  centimeters =1  cubic  decimeter cu.  dm. 

1,000  cubic  decimeters =1  cubic  meter cu.  m. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 

10  millimeters  (ml.) =1  centileter cl. 

10  centileters =1  decileter dl. 

10  decileters =1  liter 1. 

10  liters =1  decaliter DL 

10  decaliters =1  hectoliter HI. 

10  hectoliters =1  kiloliter Kl. 

The  liter  is  equal  to  the  volume  occupied  by  1  cu.  dm. 

MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT 

10  milligrams  (mg.) =1  centigram eg. 

10  centigrams =1  decigram dg. 

10  decigrams =1  gram g. 

10  grams =1  decagram Dg. 

10  decagrams =1  hectogram Hg. 

10  hectograms =1  kilogram Kg. 

1,000  kilograms =  1  ton T. 

The  gram  is  the  weight  of  1  cu.  cm.  of  pure  distilled  water 
at  a  temperature  of  39.2°  P.;  the  kilogram  is  the  weight  of  1 
liter  of  water;  the  ton  is  the  weight  of  1  cu.  m.  of  water. 


294  ARITHMETIC 

MEASURES   OF  MONEY 

UNITED  STATES  MONEY 

10  mills  (m.) =1  cent c. 

10  cents =1  dime d. 

10  dimes =  1  dollar $ 

10  dollars =1  eagle E. 

m.         ct.       d.      $    E. 
10=        1 
100=      10=     1 
1,000=     100=   10=   1 
10,000  =  1 ,000  =  100  =  10  =  1 

The  term  legal  tender  is  applied  to  money  that  may  be 
legally  offered  in  payment  of  debts.  All  gold  coins  are 
legal  tender  for  their  face  value  to  any  amount,  pro- 
vided their  weight  has  not  diminished  more  than  ^^ 
Silver  dollars  are  also  legal  tender  to  any  amount;  but 
silver  coins  of  lower  denominations  than  $1  are  legal 
tender  only  for  sums  not  exceeding  $10.  Nickel  and 
copper  coins  are  legal  tender  for  sums  not  exceeding 
25c. 
The  legal  coins  of  the  United  States  are: 

GOLD  COINS  Weight  in  Grains 

1-dollar  piece =   25.8 

2|-dollar  piece,  or  quarter  eagle =   64.5 

3-dollar  piece =   77.4 

5-dollar  piece,  or  half  eagle =  129.0 

10-dollar  piece,  or  eagle =258.0 

20-dollar  piece,  or  double  eagle =516.0 

SILVER  COINS  Weight 

Standard  dollar =412.5    grains 

Half  dollar,  or  50-cent  piece =  192.9    grains,  or  12  £  grams 

Quarter  dollar,  or  25-cent  piece  ..=   96.45  grains,  or    6 i  grams 
Dime,  or  10-cent  piece =   38.58  grains,  or    2|  grams 

COPPER  AND  NICKEL  COINS 

Weight 

5-cent  piece =77.16  grains,  or  5  grams 

3-cent  piece =  30.00  grains 

1-cent  piece. =48.00  grains 


ARITHMETIC  295 

ENGLISH   MONEY 

4  farthings  (far.) =1  penny d. 

12  pence =1  shilling s. 

20  shillings =1  pound,  or  sovereign £ 

far.      d.      s.     £ 

4  =      1 
48=    12=    1 
960  =  240  =  20  =  1 

The  unit  of  English  money  is  the  pound  sterling,  the  value 
of  which  in  United  States  money  is  $4.8665.  The  fineness  of 
English  silver  is  .925;  of  the  gold  coins,  .916|.  What  is  called 
sterling  silver  when  applied  to  solid-silver  articles  has  the 
same  fineness.  Hence  the  name  sterling  silver. 

The  other  coins  of  Great  Britain  are  the  florin  (  =  2  shillings), 
the  crown  (  =  5  shillings),  the  half  crown  (  =  2|  shillings),  and 
the  guinea  (  =  21  shillings).  The  largest  silver  coin  is  the  crown, 
and  the  smallest  the  threepence  (£  shilling).  The  shilling  is 
worth  25c.  (24.3  +c.)  in  United  States  money.  The  guinea 
is  no  longer  coined.  The  abbreviation  £  is  written  before 
the  number,  while  s.  and  d.  follow.  Thus,  £25  4s.  6d. 
=  25  pounds  4  shillings  6  pence. 

Rule. — To  reduce  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence  to  dollars  and 
cents,  reduce  the  pounds  to  shillings,  add  the  shillings,  if  any, 
and  multiply  the  sum  by  &4\;  if  any  pence  are  given,  increase 
this  product  by  twice  as  many  cents  as  there  are  pence. 

EXAMPLE. — Reduce  £4  7s.  lid.  to  dollars  and  cents. 

SOLUTION.—     (4X20+7)X.24i+2X  11  =  $2 1.39. 

Rule. — To  reduce  pounds  to  dollars,  and  vice  versa,  exchange 
being  at  $4.8665:  Multiply  the  number  of  pounds  by  73,  and 
divide  the  quotient  by  15;  the  result  will  be  the  equivalent  in  dollars 
and  cents.  Or,  multiplying  the  dollars  by  15  and  dividing  the 
product  by  73  will  give  its  equivalent  in  pounds  and  decimals 
of  a  pound. 

EXAMPLE  1.— Reduce  £6  to  dollars  and  cents. 

SOLUTION.—    6  X  73  -M  5  =  $29.20. 

EXAMPLE  2. — Reduce  $17  to  pounds. 

SOLUTION.—    17X15  -f-  73  =  £3.493. 


296 


ARITHMETIC 


The  monetary  units  of  leading  foreign  nations  and  their 
equivalents  in  United  States  money  are  as  follows.  These 
rates  are  proclaimed  each  year  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 


Country 

Monetary  Unit 

Value  in" 
U.  S.  Gold 

Canada 

Dollar     —  100  cents 

$1  00 

Great  Britain  .... 
France  1 
Belgium.  ...  >  ... 
Switzerland  I 
Italy  

Pound     =  20  shillings  
Franc      =100  centimes  
Lira         =  100  centesimi  .... 

4.86| 
.193 
.193 

Spain 

Peseta     =  100  centimes 

.193 

German  Empire.  . 
Denmark  1 
Norway      >  
Sweden      J 
Russia  

Mark      =100  pfennigs  
Crown    =  100  ore  
Ruble     =  100  copecks  

.238 
.268 
.515 

Yen         =  100  sen  

.498 

HEAT 
SPECIFIC  HEATS  OF  METALS 

The  specific  heat  of  a  substance  is  the  number  of  heat 
units  required  to  raise  a  unit  mass  of  the  substance  one 
degree  in  temperature.  The  specific  heat  of  water  is  very 
nearly  constant  for  all  temperatures,  but  that  at  its  tempera- 
ture of  maximum  density  (4°  C.  or  39.1°  F.)  is  considered 
unity.  The  specific  heats  of  most  substances  increase  with 
increasing  temperatures. 


HEAT  UNITS 

One  British  thermal  unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  Ib.  of  pure  water  1°  F. 
at  or  near  its  maximum  density,  39.1°  F. 

One  calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  1  Kg.  of  water  1°  C.  at  or  near  4°  C. 


ARITHMETIC 


297 


1  B.  T.  U.  =  .252  calorie  and  1  calorie  =  3. 968  B.  T.  tJ. 

One  small,  or  gram,  calorie  (a  heat  unit  also  in  some  use)  is 
the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  gram  of  water  1°  C.  at  or  near  4°  C. 

CENTIGRADE  AND  FAHRENHEIT   DEGREES 


Deg. 
C. 

DFeg' 

D^- 

Deg. 
F. 

D<?8' 

Deg. 
F. 

Dag- 

3$ 

0 

32.0 

26 

78.8 

51 

123.8 

76 

168.8 

1 

33.8 

27 

80.6 

52 

125.6 

77 

170.6 

2 

35.6 

28 

82.4 

53 

127.4 

78 

172.4 

3 

37.4 

29 

84.2 

54 

129.2 

79 

174.2 

4 

39.2 

30 

86.0 

55 

131.0 

80 

176.0 

5 

41.0 

31 

87.8 

56 

132.8 

81 

177.8 

6 

42.8 

32 

89.6 

57 

134.6 

82 

179.6 

44.6 

33 

91.4 

58 

136.4 

83 

181.4 

8 

46.4 

34 

93.2 

59 

138.2 

84 

183.2 

9 

48.2 

35 

95.0 

60 

140.0 

85 

185.0 

10 

50.0 

36 

96.8 

61 

141.8 

86 

186.8 

11 

51.8 

37 

98.6 

62 

143.6 

87 

188.6 

12 

53.6 

38 

100.4 

63 

145.4 

88 

190.4 

13 

55.4 

39 

102.2 

64 

147.2 

89 

192.2 

14 

57.2 

40 

104.0 

65 

149.0 

90 

194.0 

15 

59.0 

41 

105.8 

66 

150.8 

91 

195.8 

16 

60.8 

42 

107.6 

67 

152.6 

92 

197.6 

17 

62.6 

43 

109.4 

68 

154.4 

93 

199.4 

18 

64.4 

44 

111.2 

69 

156.2 

94 

201.2 

19 

66.2 

45 

113.0 

70 

158.0 

95 

203.0 

20 

68.0 

46 

114.8 

71 

159.8 

96 

204.8 

21 

69.8 

47 

116.6 

72 

161.6 

97 

2Q6.6 

22 

71.6 

48 

118.4 

73 

163.4 

98 

208.4 

23 

73.4 

49 

120.2 

74 

165.2 

99 

210.2 

24 

75.2 

50 

122.0 

75 

167.0 

100 

212.0 

25 

77.0 

298  ARITHMETIC 

TEMPERATURE 

The  temperature  of  a  body  is  its  degree  of  sensible  heat, 
For  the  measurement  of  temperatures  there  are  three  kinds  of 
thermometers:  the  Fahrenheit,  abbreviated  F.  or  Fahr.,  com- 
monly used  in  America;  the  Centigrade,  abbreviated  C.  or 
Cent.,  used  in  France  and  by  scientists  everywhere;  and  the 
Reaumur,  abbreviated  R  or  Reau..  used  in  Germany. 

Standard  Points  Degrees  F.     Degrees  C.     Degrees  R. 

Boiling  point  of  water  at  "I 

sea  level;  i.  e.,  pressure  >          212  100  80 

=  1  atmosphere J 

Melting  point  of  ice 32  0  0 

Absolute  zero.  i.  e.,  the! 

total  absence  of  heat;  >      -460  -273  -219 

theoretical  only J 

Between  boiling  point  and  freezing  point  =  180°  F.  =  100°  C. 
=  80°R. 

9  9 

Temp.  F.=-  Temp.  C.-f32°  =-Temp.  R.+320. 
5  4 

5  5 

Temp.  C.  =  -  (Temp.  F.  -  32°)  =  -  Temp.  R. 
(-9  4 

4  4 

Temp.  R.  =  -(Temp.  F.  - 32°)  =  -Temp.  C. 

,  y  & 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES 

The  following  table  is  used  in  counting  certain  articles: 

12  of  anything =1  dozen doz. 

12  dozen =1  gross gr. 

12  gross =1  great  gross g.  gr. 

20  of  anything =  1  score 

units       doz.  gr.  g.  gr. 

12=     1 
144=    12  =    1 
1,728=144  =  12  =  1 


ARITHMETIC  299 

The  following  table  is  used  in  the  paper  trade: 

24  sheets =1  quire qr. 

20  quires =1  ream rm. 

2  reams =1  bundle bdl. 

5  bundles =  1  bale B. 

sheets       qr.     rm.  bdl.  B. 

24=      1 
480=   20=    1 
960=   40=   2=1 
4,800  =  200=10  =  5=1 

It  is  now  becoming  customary  to  consider  500  sheets 
as  a  ream,  and  to  discard  the  higher  denominations. 

BOOKS 

The  terms  folio,  quarto,  octavo,  etc.,  show  the  number 
of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  folded. 

Folio =   2  leaves,  or   4  pages 

Quarto    =   4  leaves,  or   8  pages 

Octavo    =   8  leaves,  or  16  pages 

Duodecimo     =12  leaves,  or  24  pages 

16mo     =  16  leaves,  or  32  pages 

18mo    =18  leaves,  or  36  pages 

24mo    =24  leaves,  or  48  pages 

32mo     =32  leaves,  or  64  pages 

METRIC   EQUIVALENTS    OF   POUNDS,   FEET,   ETC. 

The  government  publishes  the  equivalents  in  pounds, 
etc.,  of  the  metric  system,  but  the  American  shipper 
wants  to  know  what  the  pounds,  inches,  feet,  and  gal- 
lons, to  which  he  is  accustomed,  are  in  the  metric 
system.  The  following  is  a  convenient  table  showing 
the  metric  values  of  our  measures.  Some  countries  de- 
mand that  the  metric  system  should  be  used  in  the 
consular  papers,  and  in  most  countries,  especially  in 
Latin-America,  the  consignees  ask  for  the  weights,  etc., 
in  the  metric  system.  This  table  will  be  found  valuable 
for  reference  by  invoice  clerks  and  shipping  clerks  in  the 
export  departments  of  manufacturing  establishments. 


300 


ARITHMETIC 


Pounds 
1            

Kilos 
.    .  .  =   .4536 

Pounds 
60  

Kilos 
.  .=27.216 

2 

=   .9072 

70  

.  .=31.751 

3  

.  .  .    =  1.3608 

80  

.  .  =  36.287 

4 

—  1  8144 

90 

=  40.823 

5 

=  2.2680 

100  

.  .  =   45.36 
=   9072 

6 

—  2  7216 

200 

7 

—  3.1751 

300     

.  .  =  136.08 

8          

=  3.6287 

400  

.  .  =181.44 

9 

-  4  0823 

500 

=  226.80 

10 

=   4.536 

600     

.  .  =272.16 

20           

.  .  .  =   9.072 

700  

.  .  =317.51 

30 

—  13  608 

800     

.  .  =362.87 

40 

=  18.144 

900     

..=408.23 
=  453.60 

50 

—  22  680 

1  000 

1,000  kilos  =1 
1  inch 

metric  ton  (Tc 
Centimeters 
...    =     2.54 

melada  metrico). 
7  feet         

Centimeters 
=  213.36 

1  foot     

=   30.48 

8  feet  

.  .  =243.84 

1  yard 

=   91  44 

9  feet 

=  274  32 

2  feet 

.    =   60.96 

10  feet           

.  .  =  304.80 

3  feet  

=   91.44 

11  feet  

.  .  =335.28 

4  feet 

—  121  92 

12  feet 

=  365  76 

5  feet 

=  152.40 

13  feet          

.  .  =396.24 

6  feet  

=  182.88 

14  feet  

.  .=426.72 

DIFFERENCE 
YORK  CITY  . 

When  it  is  noc 
Buffalo  
Cincinnati  
Chicago  
St.  Louis  
San  Francisco.  . 
New  Orleans.  .  . 
Washington.  .  .  . 
Charleston  

OF     SUN 
AND  OTHER 

>n  at  New  Yor 
.  .11:40  A.M. 
.  .11:18  A.  M. 
..11:07  A.M. 
.  .  10:55  A.  M. 
.  .   8:45  A.  M. 
.  .10:56  A.M. 
..11:48  A.M. 
.  .11:36  A.  M. 

TIME     BETWEEN     NEW 
PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD 

k,  it  is,  at 
Boston                        12r12  P   M 

Quebec               .  .  . 

.12:12  p.  M. 

London 

4*55  P  M 

Paris  
Rome  

Constantinople  .  . 
Vienna  
St.  Petersburg  .  .  . 
Peking  

.   5:05  P.  M. 
.   5:45  P.  M. 
.   6:41  P.  M. 
.   6:00  P.  M. 
.   6:57  P.  M. 
.12:40  A.  M. 

Havana  

..11:25  A.M. 

ARITHMETIC  301 

TABLE   OF  DISTANCES 

1  mile =5,280  ft.;  1,760  yd.; 

320  rd.;  8  fur. 

1  furlong =40  rd. 

1  league =3  mi. 

1  knot,*  or  nautical  mile =6,080  ft.,  or  1|  mi. 

1  nautical  league =3  naut.  mi. 

1  fathom =6  ft.       . 

1  meter =  3  ft.  3|  in.,  nearly 

1  hand =  4  in. 

1  palm =  3  in. 

1  span =9  in. 

1  cable's  length =  240  yd. 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 

1  cubic  foot =  1,728  cu.  in. 

1  ale  gallon =  282  cu.  in. 

1  standard,  or  wine,  gallon =231  cu.  in. 

1  dry  gallon =268.8  cu.  in. 

1  bushel =2,150.4  cu.  in. 

1  British  bushel =2,218.19  cu.  in. 

1  cord  of  wood =  128  cu.  ft. 

1  perch =24.75  cu.  ft. 

1  ton  of  round  timber =40  cu.  ft. 

1  ton  of  hewn  timber =50  cu.  ft. 

A  box  12yf  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  bu. 

A  box  19 f   in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  bbl. 

A  box    8 1    in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  pk. 

A  box    63^  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  |  pk. 

A  box    4jV  in-  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  qt. 
Cylinders  having  the  following  dimensions,  in  inches,  con- 
tain  the   measures   stated,   very   closely;   the   diameters   are 
given  first: 

Gill =lfin.X3in.    I    Gallon =   7in.X   6  in. 

Pint =3£in.X3in.        8  gallons =  14  in. X  12  in. 

Quart =3£in.X6in.    |    10 gallons =14in.X15in. 

*A  knot  is  really  a  measure  of  speed  and  not  of  distance; 
when  used  in  this  sense,  it  is  equivalent  to  1  naut.  mi.  in  1  hr. 
Thus,  a  vessel  traveling  20  naut.  mi.  per  hr.  has  a  speed  of 
20  knots. 


302  ARITHMETIC 

PLASTERING,  PAINTING,  AND 
CALCIMINING 

Plastering,  painting,  and  calcimining  are  usually  estimated 
by  the  square  yard.  Allowances  for  doors,  windows,  etc.  are 
not  regulated  by  any  established  usage. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  perimeter*  of  the  room  by  the  height  of 
the  ceiling  for  the  area  of  the  walls.  To  this  add  the  area  of  the 
ceiling,  and  from  the  sum  make  such  deductions  as  are  specified. 
Reduce  the  results  to  square  yards,  and  multiply  the  price  per 
square  yard  by  the  number  denoting  the  area  in  square  yards. 

EXAMPLE. — At  22c.  per  sq.  yd.,  what  will  it  cost  to 
plaster  a  room  65  ft.  long,  22  ft.  wide,  and  IS  ft.  high, 
deducting  in  full  for  8  doors  4  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  11  ft. 
6  in.  high,  10  windows  3  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  8  ft.  high,  and 
a  baseboard  6%  in.  high  extending  around  the  room? 

SOLUTION. — 

Perimeter  of  the  room =   65X  2+22X2  =  174  ft. 

Area  of  walls =  174X  15  =  2610        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  ceiling «  65X22  =  1430        sq.  ft. 

Total =4040        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  doors =>4£X1UX8=  414        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  windows =3£X  8X  10=»  280        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  baseboard =  (perimeter  less 

width  of  8  doors)  XY|  =  (174 -4£XS)X^|  =     74|      sq.ft. 

Total,  after  deduction =  327H      sq.  ft. 

Area  in  square  yards =  3271J-J-9  =  363Jg  sq.  yd. 

Cost =  $.22X363*1  =  $79.96 


PAPERING 

Wallpaper  as  made  in  the  United  States,  is  18  in. 
(Y2  yd.)  wide,  and  is  sold  in  single  rolls  and  double 
rolls;  a  single  roll  is  8  yd.  long,  and  a  double  roll  is 
16  yd.  long.  When  cutting  the  paper,  paper  hangers 
divide  the  rolls  into  strips  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 

*The  perimeter  is  the  sum  of  the  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the 
room. 


ARITHMETIC  303 

from  the  baseboard  to  a  short  distance  (say  6  in.)  above 
the  lower  edge  of  the  border.  There  is  always  con- 
siderable waste  in  cutting,  owing  to  the  matching  of 
the  figures  forming  the  design,  and  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  part  of  a  strip  left  over  after  cutting  up  the  roll. 
The  parts  of  strips  thus  left  over  are  used  for  the 
surface  above  doors  and  below  windows,  and  other 
irregular  places.  Although  double  rolls  are  usually 
counted  as  2  single  rolls,  there  is  a  choice  between  them 
in  certain  cases.  Thus,  suppose  the  strips  were  required 
to  be  9  ft.  (3  yd.)  long,  only  2  strips  could  be  cut  from 
a  single  roll,  or  4  strips  from.  2  single  rolls,  while  5 
strips  could  be  cut  from  a  double  roll.  The  length  of  a 
Toll  of  border  is  the  same  as  the  length  of  a  roll  of 
paper. 

On  account  of  the  waste  in  cutting,  the  various  sizes 
and  shapes  of  rooms,  the  number  of  windows,  doors,  etc., 
it  is  difficult  to  estimate  exactly  the  number  of  rolls 
required.  Two  rule's  are  given,  both  of  which  are  used 
in  practice: 

Rule. — I.  From  the  perimeter  of  the  room,  subtract  the  widths 
cf  openings  (windows  and  doors),  and  reduce  the  result  to  half 
yards;  the  number  of  half  yards  so  obtained  will  be  the  total 
number  of  strips  required.  Find  the  number  of  strips  that  can 
be  cut  from  a  roll,  and  divide  the  first  result  by  the  second;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  rolls  required. 

II.  Divide  the  number  of  half  yards  of  the  perimeter  of  the 
room  by  the  number  of  strips  that  can  be  cut  from  a  roll;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  rolls  required. 

If  computed  by  the  first  rule,  the  number  of  rolls 
obtained  may  be  too  small,  and  if  computed  by  the 
second  rule,  too  large.  But,  since  paper  dealers  will 
usually  take  back  all  rolls  that  are  intact,  the  second 
rule  will  generally  give  the  best  results,  as  it  will 
prevent  the  loss  of  time  required  to  send  to  the  dealer 
for  extra  rolls,  in  case  they  are  needed. 

EXAMPLE.— Find  how  much  paper  will  be  needed  to 
cover  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  a  room  15  ft.  x  20  ft.,  the 
border  for  both  walls  and  ceiling  to  be  18  in.  wide.  The 


ARITHMETIC 

baseboard  is  8  in.  high,  and  the  height  of  walls  from 
floor  to  ceiling  is  9  ft. 

SOLUTION.— Since  the  widths  of  the  openings  are  not 
specified,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  rule  II. 

Perimeter  of  room  =  2  x  15  +  2  x  20  =  70  f t.  =  23^  yd.  =  46% 
half  yards,  or  47  strips.  Assuming  that  the  strips  extend 
the  height  of  the  baseboard  above  the  bottom  edge  of 
the  border,  the  length  of  a  strip  is  (since  18  in.  =  \l/2  ft.) 
9-1^-7^  ft.  =  2l/2  yd.  Hence,  the  number  of  strips  in 
a  single  roll  is  8  T  2]/2  -  3  strips,  and  the  number  of  rolls 
required  is.  47  T  3  -  lS2/s,  or  16  rolls. 

In  papering  the  ceiling,  the  direction  in  which  the 
strips  are  to  run  must  be  considered.  If  the  strips  run 
lengthwise  of  the  room,  the  distance  between  the  edges 
of  the  border  is  20  -  2  x  \y2  =  17  ft.,  and  the  length  of  the 
strips  must  be  at  least  18  ft.,  or  6  yd.,  long;  hence,  but 
1  strip  can  be  cut  from  a  single  roll,  and  but  2  strips 
from  a  double  roll.  The  width  of  the  room  in  half  yards 
is  (15  T  3)  x2  =  10;  hence,  allowing  for  the  border,  9  strips, 
or  9  single  rolls,  will  be  required. 

If  the  strips  run  crosswise  of  the  room,  the  length 
of  a  strip  between  the  edges  of  the  border  will  be 
15-2x1^  =  12  ft.,  and  the  length  of  a  strip  must  be  at 
least  13  ft.,  or  41/fj  yd.;  hence,  1  strip  may  be  obtained 
from  a  single  roll,  or  16-r4}£  =  3  strips  from  a  double 
roll.  The  length  of  the  room  in  half  yards  is  (20  v  3)  x  2 
=  13^j;  hence,  allowing  the  paper  to  extend  6  in.  beyond 
the  inner  edge  of  the  border,  at  both  ends  of  the  room, 
12  strips  will  be  required.  The  number  of  double  rolls 
required  will  be  12^3  =  4  double  rolls.  Consequently,  in 
this  case,  there  is  less  waste  when  the  paper  runs  cross- 
wise than  when  it  runs  lengthwise. 

Since  the  perimeter  of  the  room  is  70  ft.,  or  23^  yd., 
23^f8  =  3  single  rolls  of  border  for  the  walls,  and  the 
same  amount  for  the  ceiling  will  be  required.  Therefore, 
16  single  rolls  of  paper  are  required  for  the  walls, 
4  double  rolls  for  the  ceiling,  3  single  rolls  of  border  for 
the  walls,  and  3  single  rolls  for  the  ceiling. 


ARITHMETIC  305 

CARPETING 

Carpet  is  made  in  various  widths.  Ingrain  carpet  is  usually 
36  in.,  or  1  yd.,  wide;  Brussels  carpet  is  27  in.,  or  f  yd.,  wide. 
Carpet  borders  are  22 5  in.,  or  f  yd.,  wide.  A  linear  yard  of 
ingrain  carpet  contains  1  sq.  yd.,  and  a  linear  yard  of  Brussels 
carpet  contains  f  sq.  yd. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  linear  yards  of  carpet  required 
for  a  room,  if  no  allowance  is  made  for  cutting  and  matching 
the  strips,  divide  the  area  of  the  room  in  square  yards  by  the  area 
of  a  linear  yard  of  the  carpet. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  yards  of  Brussels  carpet  will  be 
required  to  cover  a  floor  36  ft.  long  and  21  ft.  wide, 
making  no  allowance  for  cutting  and  matching? 

SOLUTION.— Area      of      floor  =  36X21  =  756      sq.   ft.  =  ^ 

=  84  sq.  yd.  A  linear  yard  of  Brussels  carpet  has  an  area  of 
|  sq.  yd.  Hence,  the  number  of  linear  yards  required  is 
84  •*•  f=112  yd. 

In  practice,  there  is  usually  considerable  loss  due  to 
cutting  and  matching.  To  find  the  number  of  yards  re- 
quired for  a  room,  when  allowance  is  made  for  loss,  the 
width  of  the  room  is  divided  by  the  width  of  a  single 
strip.  The  quotient  is  the  number  of  strips  required, 
supposing  them  to  run  lengthwise  of  the  room.  The 
number  of  strips  multiplied  by  the  length  in  yards  of  a 
single  strip,  making  allowance  for  the  loss  required  for 
matching,  is  the  number  of  linear  yards  required. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  yards  of  Brussels  carpet  will  be 
required  to  cover  a  room  23  ft.  long  and  15  ft.  wide, 
making  an  allowance  of  1  ft.  on  each  strip  for  matching? 
The  carpet  is  supposed  to  run  lengthwise. 

SOLUTION. — Width  of  room  =15  ft.  =  180  in.  Width  of 
carpet  =  27  in.  Number  of  strips  =  180  ^-27  =  6§.  Hence, 
7  strips  must  be  used,  the  excess,  9  in.,  being  cut  off  or  turned 
under.  Allowing  1  ft.  for  matching,  length  of  strip  =  23  +  1 
=  24  ft.  =  8  yd.  Number  of  linear  yards  required  =  7X8 
=  56  yd. 


306  ARITHMETIC 

The  number  of  linear  yards  of  carpet  border  required 
for  a  room  is  equal  to  the  perimeter  of  the  room  in 
yards. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  yards  of  border  will  be  required 
in  carpeting  a  room  42  ft.  long  and  26^2  ft.  wide? 

SOLUTION. — Perimeter    of    room  =  42X2+26£X2  =  137    ft. 

137 
•=-3-  =  45|  yd. 


BOARD  MEASURE 

In  measuring"  lumber,  the  unit  is  the  board  foot,  which  is  a 
board  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide,  and  1  in.  (or  less)  thick.  One 
board  foot  is  equal  to  ^  cu.  ft. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  any  piece  of  lumber, 
multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  feet,  and  this  product 
by  the  thickness  in  inches,  if  it  be  more  than  1  inch;  or,  otherwise, 
multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  this 
product  by  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  then  divide  by  12. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  board  feet  are  contained  in  a 
joist  18  ft.  long,  14  in.  wide,  and  12  in.  thick? 

SOLUTION.—    18*14X12  =  ^  ^^  f ^ 

Lumber  is  sold  by  the  thousand  (M)  feet,  the  term  foot 
being  always  used  instead  of  the  longer  term,  board  foot. 

Rule. — To  find  the  cost  of  lumber,  divide  the  number  of  feet  by 
1,000  and  multiply  by  the  cost  per  M. 

EXAMPLE.— What  will  be  the  cost  of  19  boards  14  ft. 
long,  15  in.  wide,  and  \y2  in.  thick,  at  $23.50  per  M? 

SOLUTION.— Number    of    thousand    feet  = 

«=.498f.     Hence,  .498f X  $23.50  =  $11.72. 

Shingles  are  sold  in  bundles  of  250  (J4  M).  The  lengths 
of  all  shingles  in  bundle  are  the  same  (usually  12  in., 
14  in.,  or  16  in.),  but  their  widths  vary.  The  average 
width,  however,  is  generally  4  in.,  the  width  of  all 
bundles  being  alike.  When  laying  shingles,  4  in.  is 
usually  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  remaining  portions 
being  concealed  by  the  other  shingles. 


ARITHMETIC  307 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  shingles  required  to  cover  a  roof, 
compute  the  total  area  of  the  roof  in  square  inches,  and  divide 
this  area  by  the  product  of  the  average  width  of  the  shingles  and 
the  length  that  is  exposed  to  the  weather. 

EXAMPLE.— What  will  it  cost  to  shingle  a  roof,  each 
side  measuring  40  ft.  x  16  ft.,  if  the  shingles  cost  $4.50 
per  M? 

SOLUTION. — Since  the  size  of  the  exposed  portion  is  not 
stated,  it  will  be  assumed  as  4  in.X4  in.  Then,  for  one  side, 

—  =  5,760  shingles  will  be  required,  and  for  both 

sides,  5,760X2  =  11,520  shingles.     Therefore,  the  cost  will  be 
1 1. 52  X  $4.50  =  $51. 84. 

Multiply  by  144  in  order  to  reduce  the  square  feet  (40X16) 
to  square  inches.  Allowance  should  also  be  made  for  waste. 


MASONRY 

In  estimating  the  cubical  contents  of  stone  walls,  the  perch 
of  24 1  cu.  ft.  is  used. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  perches  of  masonry  in  a  wall, 
divide  the  volume  of  the  wall  in  cubic  feet  by  24f . 

In  estimating  the  contents  of  stone  foundations  for  build- 
ings, the  length  of  the  wall  is  measured  on  the  outside,  thus 
counting  each  corner  twice.  If  a  wall  2  ft.  thick  measures 
12  ft.X20  ft.  on  the  outside,  and  the  corners  are  assumed  to 
be  parts  of  the  longer  sides,  there  will  be  2  walls  each  20  ft. 
long,  and  2  walls  each  8  ft.  long.  The  actual  length  is  there- 
fore 2X20+2X8  =  56  ft.  The  length  estimated  on  the  out- 
side is  2X20+2X12=64  ft.  To  find  the  actual  length  of 
such  a  wall,  subtract  4  times  the  thickness  of  the  wall  from 
the  length  measured  on  the  outside.  Thus,  in  the  above  case, 
actual  length  =  64 -4X2  =  56  ft. 

Usually,  masons  make  no  allowance  for  windows  or  doors 
in  estimating  their  work.  In  estimating  the  quantity  of  stone 
required  for  the  wall,  such  allowances  should  be  made. 

EXAMPLE.— (a)  How  many  perches  of  stone  will  be  re- 
quired to  build  the  walls  of  a  church  60  ft.  long  by 


308  ARITHMETIC 

32  ft.  wide,  the^  walls  being  24  ft.  high  and  2l/4  ft.  thick? 
There  are  8  windows,  each  5  ft.  wide  and  11  ft.  high, 
and  2  doors,  each  6  ft.  wide  and  9  ft.  high.  (&)  What 
will  be  the  cost  of  laying  the  walls  at  $3.50  per  perch? 

SOLUTION. — 

Length  of  wall  (outside)  =2X60+2X32=184  ft. 

Actual  length  =  184-4X2*=  175  ft. 

Actual  cubical  contents  =  175X24X2^  =  9,450  cu.  ft. 

Allowance  for  windows  =  5X  11X2^X8  =  990  cu.  ft. 

Allowance  for  doors  =  6X9X2^X2  =  243  cu.  ft. 

Net  contents  =  9,450- (990+243)  =8,217  cu.  ft. 

(a)     Perches  required  for  wall  =  8,217  •*-  24  f  =  332. 

(6)     Since,  in  estimating  the  cost  of  the  work,  no  alkro 
is  made  for  corners,  doors,  and  windows, 

Cubical  contents  =  184  X  24  X2i  =  9,936  cu.  ft. 

Perches  of  stonework  =  9, 936  -i-  24  f  =  401  &. 

Cost  of  laying  walls  =  4011?TX  $3.50  =  $1,405.09. 

• 


BRICKWORK 

Brickwork  is  generally  estimated  by  the  thousand 
bricks  laid  in  the  wall,  but  measurements  by  the  cubic 
yard  and  by  the  perch  are  also  used.  To  allow  for 
mortar,  *4  in-  is  added  to  the  length  and  to  the  thickness 
in  making  calculations.  The  following  data  will  be 
found  useful  in  calculating  the  number  of  bricks  in  a 
wall.  For  each  superficial  foot  of  wall  4  in.  in  thickness 
(the  width  of  1  brick),  allow  7l/2  bricks;  for  a  9-in.  wall 
(the  width  of  2  bricks),  allow  15  bricks;  and  so  on, 
estimating  7^2  bricks  for  each  additional  4  in.  in  thick- 
ness of  wall.  If  brickwork  is  to  be  estimated  by  the 
cubic  yard,  allow  500  bricks  to  1  cu.  yd.  This  figure  is 
based  on  the  use  of  8^4  in.  x4  in.  x2j4  in.  bricks,  with 
mortar  joints  not  over  Y%  in.  thick.  If  the  joints  are 
Y%  in.  thick,  as  in  face  brickwork,  1  cu.  yd.  will  require 
about  575  bricks.  In  making  calculations  of  the  number 
cf  bricks  required,  an  allowance  of,  say,  5%  should  be 
made  for  waste  in  breakage,  etc. 


ARITHMETIC  309 

BINS,  CISTERNS,  ETC. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  estimate  the  capacity  of  a 
bin,  box,  or  vessel  in  bushels,  barrels,  or  gallons.  The 
volume  of  the  bin  or  vessel  in  cubic  feet  or  cubic 
inches  is  divided  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  or  cubic 
inches  in  a  bushel,  barrel,  or  gallon,  as  the  case  may  be. 
For  convenience  of  reference,  the  following  table  of 
capacities  is  given: 

DRY    MEASURE 

1  heaped  bushel  =2,747.71  cu.  in.  =  1.59  cu.  ft.,  nearly 
1  stricken  bushel  ==2, 150.42  cu.  in.  =  1.25  cu.  ft.,  nearly 
1  peck  =  537.6  cu.  in. 

1  quart  =      67.2    cu.  in. 

1  pint  =      33.6    cu.  in. 

LIQUID  MEASURE 
1  hogshead  =  8.422  cu.  ft. 
1  barrel  =4.211  cu.  ft. 
1  gallon  =231  cu.  in. 
1  quart  =  57.75  cu.  in. 
1  pint  =  28.875  cu.  in. 

Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  or  other  vessel  in  dry 
measure  or  in  liquid  measure,  divide  the  volume  of  the  bin  or 
vessel  in  cubic  inches  by  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  the  unit 
of  measure. 

The  following  table  of  approximate  capacities  is  very 
convenient  in  rough  calculations: 

1  cubic  foot  =  .63  heaped  bushel 
1  cubic  foot  =  .80  stricken  bushel 
1  cubic  foot  =  7.50  liquid  gallons 
1  cubic  foot  =  i§  barrel 

The    following    short    rules    are    approximate,    but    the 
results  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes. 
Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  in  heaped  bushels,  multiply 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  .63. 

Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  in  stricken  bushels,  multiply 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  .8. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cistern  or  other 
vessel,  multiply  the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  7.5. 


310  ARITHMETIC 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  barrels  in  a  cistern,  multiply 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  £$. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cylindrical  vessel, 
multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  in  inches  by  the  height  in 
inches,  and  that  product  by  .0034, 


GAUGING  OF  CASKS 

A  cask  resembles  two  frustums  of  cones  with  their 
larger  bases  placed  together. 

The  bung  diameter  of  a  cask  is  the  diameter  measured 
half  way  between  the  two  ends;  it  is  usually  the  greatest 
diameter. 

The  mean  diameter  of  a  cask  is  the  mean  between  the 
bung  diameter  and  the  head  diameter.  The  mean 
diameter  is  found  Dy  adding  together  the  head  diameter 
and  bung  diameter  and  dividing  the  sum  by  2. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cask,  multiply  the 
square  of  the  mean  diameter  in  inches  by  the  length  in  inchest 
and  that  product  by  .0034. 

EXAMPLE.— The  diameter  of  a  cask  is  27  in.  at  the 
head,  33  in.  at  the  bung,  and  the  cask  is  3  ft.  long; 
how  many  gallons  will  it  hold? 

SOLUTION. — Mean  diameter  =  — ^—  =  30  in.  Length  =  3  ft. 

=  36  in.     Capacity  =  3Q2  X  36  X  .0034  =  110.16  gal. 

To  find  the  number  of  liters  in  the  cask,  multiply  by 
.0129  instead  of  .0034.  If  the  cask  is  partly  filled,  stand 
it  on  end,  find  the  mean  diameter  of  the  part  filled, 
multiply  its  square  by  the  height,  and  that  product  by 
.0034. 

COAL  AND  HAY 

A  ton  (2,000  Ib.)  of  Lehigh  coal,  egg  size,  measures 
34^s  cu.  ft.  in  the  bin;  Schuylkill  coal,  35  cu.  ft.;  pink- 
gray  and  red-ash  coal,  36  cu.  ft. ;  Wyoming  coal,  31  cu.  ft. 

The  bulk  of  a  ton  of  hay  is  dependent  on  the  pressure 
to  which  it  is  subjected.  Roughly  speaking,  a  ton  of 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME  311 

hay  lying  unpressed  measures  500  cu.  ft. ;  when  in 
a  small  stack,  400  cu.  ft.;  and  in  mows  compressed  with 
grain,  or  in  well-settled  stacks,  300  cu.  ft. 

Shipping  Ton.— Freight  on  very  light  articles  is  usually 
estimated  by  the  space  occupied. 

f  1  United  States  shipping  ton 
40  cu.  ft.=  <  31.16  imperial  bushels 

132.143  United  States  bushels 

{1  British  shipping  ton 
32.719  imperial  bushels 
33.75  United  States  bushels 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME 

In  the  following  list  are  given  the  approximate  dis- 
tances by  postal  routes  and  the  time  by  rail  between  New- 
York  City  and  the  points  indicated.  The  times  men- 
tioned are  subject  to  changes  due  to  varying  conditions. 

Cities  in  the  United  States  Miles  Hours 

Albany,    N.   Y 142  V/2 

Atlanta,  Ga 882  2V/4 

Baltimore,    Md 188  6 

Binghamton,   N.   Y 207  5^ 

Bismarck,    N.    Dak 1,738  60J4 

Boise,   Idaho    2,736  92*/2 

Boston,  Mass 217 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 410  9^ 

Cape  May,  N.  J 172 

Carson  City,  Nev 3,036  109^ 

Charleston,   S.    C 804  21*4 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 853  32 

Cheyenne,   Wyo 1,899  54 

Chicago,    111 900  23 

Cincinnati,  Ohio   744  23 


312  POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME 

Cities  in  the  United  States  Miles 

Cleveland,    Ohio 568 

Columbus,    Ohio    624 

Concord,   N.  H 292 

Deadwood,   S.    Dak 1,975 

Denver,    Colo 1,930 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 1,257 

Detroit,    Mich 743 

Galveston,    Tex 1,789 

Harrisburg,    Pa 182 

Hartford,    Conn 112 

Helena,    Mont 2,423 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 1,367  55 

Indianapolis,   Ind 808  23 

Jacksonville^    Fla 1,077  32 

Kansas   City,   Mo 1,302  38# 

Louisville,    Ky 854  30 

Memphis,    Tenn 1,163  40 

Milwaukee,    Wis 985  29^ 

Montgomery,   Ala 1,057  30^ 

Montpelier,   Vt 327  10^ 

New  Orleans,   La 1,344  40 

Omaha,   Neb 1,383  43 

Philadelphia,    Pa 90  3 

Pittsburg,    Pa 431  13 

Portland,  Me 325  12 

Portland,   Ore 3,181  \W/2 

Prescott,  Ariz 2,724  94 

Providence,  R.  1 189  6 

Richmond,  Va 344  11J4 

St.   Louis,  Mo 1,048  29 

St.  Paul,  Minn 1,300  37 

Salt  Lake  City,   Utah 2,452  7V/2 

San  Francisco,   Cal 3,250  106 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 2,173  82 

Savannah,   Ga 905  26 

Scranton,    Pa 146  4y2 

Tacoma,    Wash 3,209  102 

Topeka,   Kans 1,370  48 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME  313 

Cities  in  the  United  States                                  Miles  Hours 

Trenton,    N.   J 57  2 

Vicksburg,   Miss 1,288  50 

Vinita,    Okla 1,412  42 

Washington,  D.   C 228  6^ 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 496  14& 

Wilmington,  Pel 117  5 

Wilmington,  N.   C 593  20 

The  postal  distances  and  time  between  New  York  and 
foreign  cities  are  as  follows: 

By  Postal  Route  to                                                 Miles  Days 

Adelaide,  via  Vancouver  12,845  31 

Alexandria,  via  London  6,150  12 

Amsterdam,   via  London    '.....    3,985  8 

Antwerp,  via  London  4,000  8 

Athens,  via  London      5,655  11 

Bahia,    Brazil    5,870  14 

Bangkok,  Siam,  via  San  Francisco 12,900  43 

Batavia,   Java,   via   London 12,800  34 

Berlin,   via   London    4,385 

Bombay,  via  London  9,765  22 

Bremen,  via  London    4,235  8 

Buenos  Ayres  8,045  24 

Calcutta  via  London 11,120  24 

Cape  Town,  via  London 11,245  25. 

Constantinople,  via  London  5,810  11 

Florence,  via  London  4,800  9 

Glasgow    '..    3,370  8 

Greytown,  via  New  Orleans 2,815  7 

Halifax,  N.  S 645 

Hamburg,  via  London  4,340  9 

Hamburg,  direct   4,820  9 

Havana   1,366  3 

Hong  Kong,  via  San  Francisco 10,590  27 

Honolulu,  via  San  Francisco 5,645  12 

Liverpool 3,540 

London,  via  Queenstown  3,740 

London,   via   Southampton    3,760 

Madrid,  via  London  4,925  9 


314  INFORMATION  OF  INTEREST 

By  Postal  Route  to  Miles  Days 

Melbourne,  via  Vancouver  12,265  30 

Mexico   City   (railroad) 3,750  5 

Panama     2,355  6 

Paris     4,020  8 

Rio  de  Janeiro 6,204  17 

Rome,  via  London  5,030  9 

Rotterdam,    via   London 3,935  8 

St.  Petersburg,  via  London 5,730  9 

San  Juan,   Porto  Rico 1,730  6 

Shanghai,  via  San  Francisco 9,920  25 

Stockholm,  via  London 4,975  10 

Sydney,  via  Vancouver  11,570  29 

Valparaiso,  via  Panama 5,910  22 

Vienna, -via  London 4,740  9 

Yokohama,  via  San  Francisco 7,345  20 


INFORMATION  OF  INTEREST 

Birthday  Stone  for  Each  Month  of  the  Year.— Stones 
of  different  kinds  are  often  considered  proper  for  birth- 
days coming  in  different  months  of  the  year.  They  are: 
Garnet  for  January,  amethyst  for  February,  bloodstone 
for  March,  diamond  for  April,  emerald  for  May,  pearl 
for  June,  ruby  for  July,  sardonyx  for  August,  sapphire 
for  September,  opal  for  October,  topaz  for  November,  and 
turquoise  for  December. 

Names  of  Wedding  Anniversaries.— Wedding  anniver- 
saries are  named   according  to  the  name   of  the  article 
considered    appropriate  for  anniversary   presents   at  dif- 
ferent times.    The  names  are: 
1st  year— Cotton  15th  year— Crystal 

2d  year— Paper  20th  year— China 

3d  year — Leather  25th  year— Silver 

5th  year— Wooden  30th  year— Pearl 

7th  year— Woolen  40th  year— Ruby 

10th  year— Tin  50th  year— Golden 

12th  year— Silk  and  fine  75th  year— Diamond 

linen 


IXFORMATION  OF  INTEREST  315 

Care  of  Birds  and  Fish.— Caged  birds,  especially  the 
canary,  should  always  be  kept  in  good  cages  that  are 
perfectly  clean  and  free  from  vermin.  The  greater  part 
of  all  the  cages  now  used  have  a  hanger  at  the  top  of 
the  cage,  which  can  be  removed.  This  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  cage  at  least  once  every  month.  Here  is 
where  the  red  .mites  hide.  The  best  kind  of  roosts  or 
perches  can  be  made  from  the  smaller  branches  of  the 
elder.  The  outer  covering  should  be  scraped  and  the 
pith  removed  from  the  center  of  the  pieces  of  elder. 
The  red  mites  crawl  into  these  perches,  which  can  be 
scalded  once  a  week  with  hot  water,  thus  destroying  the 
mites. 

The  best  seed  for  canaries  is  Sicilian  canary  seed  and 
a  little  German  rape  seed.  A  small  portion  of  hemp  seed 
may  be  added.  Never  mix  the  hemp  seed  with  the  other 
seed;  if  you  do,  the  birds  will  throw  the  other  seed  out 
in  their  diligent  search  for  the  hemp  seed.  Hemp  seed 
is  too  fattening  for  them  to  have  much  of  it.  Feed  the 
hemp  seed  separate.  Canaries  must  have  some  kind  of 
green  feed,  and  nothing  is  better  for  them  than  a  few 
leaves  of  dandelion  or  lettuce.  They  should  never  be 
fed  cabbage  or  heavy  greens. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  have  an  aquarium  in  the  house  with 
fish  and  growing  plants.  The  plants  contained  in  the 
aquarium  should  be  sufficiently  numerous  to  throw  off 
enough  oxygen  to  supply  the  fish.  The  function  of  plant 
life  in  the  water  is  to  decompose  the  carbonic-acid  gas 
under  the  action  of  sunlight,  using  the  carbon  to  build 
up  the  structures  and  to  liberate  the  oxygen  which  is 
necessary  to  the  fish.  Fish  in  breathing  absorb  the  free 
oxygen  in  the  water,  and  they  also  absorb  it  from  the 
air.  The  proportion  of  oxygen  or  of  air  that  water  will 
contain  varies  with  the  temperature.  Thus,  for  about 
every  16°  drop  in  temperature  water  will  take  up  and 
retain  about  double  the  volume  of  oxygen  or  of  atmos- 
pheric air.  Boiling  the  water  expels  the  oxygen.  When 
all  of  the  oxygen  is  exhausted  the  water  will  no  longer 
support  the  life  of  the  fish.  The  cooler  the  water,  the 


316  RULES  OF  BUSINESS 

greater  amount  of  oxygen  will  there  be  and  the  greater 
number  of  fish  can  be  kept  in  it.  The  fewer  fish,  and 
the  more  space  there  is  in  the  aquarium,  the  better  will 
the  fish  prosper.  An  aquarium  should  be  kept  clean 
and  free  from  slimy  deposits.  The  water  should  be 
changed  frequently  enough  to  keep  it  pure. 


RULES  OF  BUSINESS 

There  are  a  few  rules  or  guides  for  good  business  that 
can  be  safely  followed  at  all  times.  It  is  always  best, 
however,  to  ask  advice  of  your  banker  or  a  lawyer  of 
experience  relative  to  financial  matters  that  may  cause 
a  loss. 

If  a  note  is  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the 
maker;  he  must  pay  it  if  the  consideration  for  which  it 
was  given  and  the  amount  can  be  proved. 

Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated. 

Principals  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their  agents. 

Each  individual  in  a  partnership  is  responsible  for  the 
whole  amount  of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  except  in  cases 
of  a  special  partnership.  The  word  "limited"  in  con- 
nection with  a  firm  name  indicates  that  a  limitation  of 
responsibility  for  each  member  is  fixed. 

Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 

An   agreement   without  consideration   of  value   is  void. 

A  note  made  on  a  Sunday  is  void,  also  one  dated  ahead 
of  its  issue.  It  may  be  dated  back  at  pleasure. 

Contracts  made  on  Sunday  cannot  be  enforced. 

A  note  by  a  minor  is  void  in  some  states,  and  in  others 
it  is  voidable  on  judicial  decision. 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  or  a  lunatic  is  void. 

A  note  obtained  by  fraud  or  from  a  person  in  a  state 
of  intoxication  cannot  be  collected. 

It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 

Signatures  made  with  a  lead  pencil  are  good  in  law. 

The  acts  of  one  partner  binds  the  rest. 


RULES  OF  BUSINESS  317 

"Value  received"  is  usually  written  in  a  note,  and 
should  be,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  If  not  written  it  is 
presumed  by  the  law  or  may  be  supplied  by  proof. 

The  maker  of  an  "accommodation"  bill  or  note  (one 
for  which  he  has  received  no  consideration)  having  lent 
his  name  or  credit  for  the  benefit  of  the  holder,  is  not 
bound  to  the  person  accommodated,  but  is  bound  to  all 
other  parties,  precisely  as  if  there  were  a  good  con- 
sideration. 

No  consideration  is  sufficient  in  law  if  it  be  illegal  in 
its  nature. 

Checks  or  drafts  must  be  presented  for  payment  with- 
out unreasonable  delay. 

An  indorsee  has  a  right  of  action  against  all  whose 
names  were  on  the  bill  when  he  received  it. 

If  the  letter  containing  a  protest  of  non-payment  be 
put  into  the  post  office,  any  miscarriage  does  uot  affect 
the  party  giving  notice. 

Notice  of  protest  may  be  sent  either  to  the  place  of 
business  or  residence  of  the  party  notified. 


CHECKS 

How  to  Draw  Checks.— A  check  is  merely  an  order  for 
a  bank  to  pay  a  stipulated  sum  of  money  to  the  person 
whose  name  appears  on  the  check,  from  the  funds  of  the 
drawer  of  the  check. 

Checks  may  be  made  payable  either  to  order  or  bearer. 
In  the  former  case,  the  payee  should  be  known  to  the 
proper  bank  officials,  and  must  indorse  the  check  before 
the  money  is  paid.  In  case  the  check  reads  "pay  to- 
bearer,"  any  one  holding  the  check  should  indorse  it, 
and  if  he  is  known  to  the  bank,  he  is  entitled  to  present 
it  and  receive  the  money  stipulated. 

Every  person  who  writes  a  check  should  be  very  care- 
ful to  protect  himself  against  dishonest  intentions  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  check  is  issued.  A  check  should 
always  be  written  with  pen  and  ink.  Never  use  a  lead 


RULES  OF  BUSINESS 

when  drawing  a  check.  The  amount  which  is 
stipulated  on  the  check  should  be  started  as  far  to  the  left 
as  possible  so  that  no  writing  or  figures  could  be  inserted 
to  increase  the  amount  of  the  check.  The  space  remain- 
ing should  be  filled  in  by  a  very  heavy  line  so  that 
nothing  could  be  added  after  the  amount  inserted.  The 
figures  of  a  check  should  be  plainly  written  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  figures  correspond.  Although  a 
bank  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  payment  of  a 
check  made  payable  to  bearer,  or  wrong  person,  if  the 
circumstances  warrant  such  action,  a  bank  may  refuse  to 
cash  it  until  they  are  satisfied  that  it  is  the  right  party. 

Checks  Should  Be  Presented  for  Payment  as  Soon  as 
Possible.— The  receiver  of  a  check  may  avoid  consider- 
able trouble  or  loss  of  money  by  presenting  checks  for 
payment  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  received. 
The  drawer  of  a  check  usually  prefers  to  have  his  checks 
paid  as  soon  as  possible,  to  avoid  'keeping  track  of  out- 
standing checks.  Should  the  holder  of  a  check  neglect 
to  present  it  for  payment  at  once  and  the  bank  should 
become  insolvent,  he  cannot  compel  the  bank  to  make 
good  the  loss  he  has  sustained  if  more  than  the  ordinary 
time  has  elapsed  before  he  presents  the  check  that  is 
given  him. 

Certified  Checks.— A  certified  check  is  a  common  check 
that  has  been  certified  by  the  cashier  of  the  bank  on 
which  it  is  drawn ;  that  is,  he  has  written  or  stamped 
across  the  face,  usually  with  red  ink,  the  word  "certi- 
fied," the  date,  and  his  signature. 

The  certifying  of  a  check  is  the  same  as  accepting  a 
draft,  and  makes  the  bank  responsible  for  its  payment, 
and  not  the  drawer.  Remember,  that  when  you  have  a 
check  certified  it  is  at  once  deducted  from  your  account; 
therefore,  if  you  do  not  use  it,  you  must  deposit  it  to 
your  credit  before  it  can  again  be  added  to  your  account. 

Certificate  of  Deposit.— A  certificate  of  deposit  is  a 
written  acknowledgment  of  a  bank  that  it  has  received 
from  the  person  named  a  sum  of  money  as  a  deposit, 
subject  to  withdrawal  on  demand  and  on  surrender  of 


RULES  OF  BUSINESS  319 

the  certificate.  Generally,  persons  holding  certificates 
of  deposit  are  not  allowed  to  draw  a  check  for  all  or 
part  of  it. 

Receipt. — A  receipt  is  a  written  acknowledgment  of 
having  received  a  specified  value,  with  the  date,  source 
of  receipt,  signature  of  the  party  that  received  the  value, 
and  such  other  particulars  as  may  be  necessary  to  make 
it  plain  and  unquestionable. 


NOTES 

Note. — A  note  is  an  absolute  promise,  in  writing,  to 
pay  on  a  certain  date,  or  on  demand,  a  specified  sum  of 
money  to  a  person  named  therein,  or  to  his  order,  or 
to  the  bearer,  and  is  signed  by  the  maker. 

Joint  Note.— A  joint  note  is  one  signed  by  two  or  more 
parties  and  reading,  "We  promise  to  pay."  It  is  sup- 
posed that  each  party  to  the  note  has  been  equally 
benefited;  therefore,  only  his  proportionate  share  can  be 
collected  from  each. 

A  joint-and-several  note  reads,  "We  jointly  and  seve- 
rally promise  to  pay."  In  this  form  of  note,  the  makers 
are  united  in  the  obligation,  and  the  payee  can  collect 
from  all  the  makers  together,  or  the  entire  face  of  the 
note  from  any  one  of  them,  if  he  is  worth  that  amount. 

Protests.— Have  all  the  notes  in  your  favor  made  pay- 
able at  a  bank;  then,  a  few  days  before  they  become 
due,  if  not  previously  discounted,  deposit  them  for  collec- 
tion. The  bank  will  then  see  that  they  are  properly 
presented  when  due,  and  will  protest  if  not  paid. 

Protesting  is  a  formal  statement  made  by  a  notary 
public  that  the  paper  was  presented  for  payment  and 
payment  refused.  A  notice  of  protest  is  sent  to  the 
maker  and  to  each  indorser.  If  there  are  indorsers  and 
no  protest  is  made,  the  indorsers  in  some  states,  are 
released.  When  there  are  no  indorsers,  it  is  quite  com- 
mon to  waive  protest  by  writing  on  the  back  of  such 
paper  "Protest  Waived.** 


320  RULES  OF  BUSINESS 

Unless  inscribed  with  the  words  "with  interest,"  notes 
do  not  draw  interest  until  after  maturity;  but  if  not 
paid  at  maturity,  they  draw  interest  at  the  legal  rate 
until  paid. 

Due  Bill. — A  due  bill  is  a  written  acknowledgment  of 
something    due    from    one    party    to    another.      They    are 
not  usually  made  payable  to  order,  are  frequently  with 
out    date,    and    seldom    mention    the   name    of   the    plac 
or  state. 


DRAFTS 

Sight  Draft.— A  sight  draft  is  a  draft  drawn  by  one 
person  on  another,  and  payable  on  presentation,  or  at 
sight.  They  are  treated  as  cash  by  those  receiving  them. 

Time  Draft.— Time  drafts  are  drawn  payable  a  certain 
number  of  days  after  sight  and  to  be  of  value  must  be 
accepted  by  the  party  on  whom  the'y  are  drawn.  Accept- 
ance is  shown  by  writing  across  the  face,  usually  in  red 
ink  because  of  its  prominence,  the  word  "accepted,"  the 
date,  and  the  signature  of  the  acceptor.  The  due  date  is 
figured  so  many  days  after  the  date  of  acceptance,  and 
not  after  the  date  on  which  it  was  drawn. 

Often  there  is  seen  attached  to  the  end  of  a  draft  a 
slip  reading,  "No  Protest."  "Take  this  off  before  pre- 
senting." This  informs  the  banker  that  the  drawer  does 
not  wish  the  paper  protested,  and  is  done  so  that  if  the 
paper  is  not  accepted,  the  drawer  will  not  have  to  pay 
the  protest  fees. 

Bank  Draft.— For  convenience  and  safety  in  making 
remittance  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another,  in 
funds  that  are  at  par,  and  yet  without  actually  trans- 
ferring the  cash,  bank  drafts  are  bought  from  local  banks 
and  forwarded,  instead  of  using  checks,  etc. 


RULES  OF  BUSINESS  321 

SIMPLE-INTEREST  RULES 

4%. — Multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days  to 
run,  separate  the  right-hand  figure  from  the  product  and 
divide  by  9. 

5%.— Multiply  by  the  number  of  days  and  divide  by  72. 

6%.— Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  separate  the 
right-hand  figure  and  divide  by  6. 

8%. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days  and  divide  by  45. 

9%.— Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  separate  the 
right-hand  figure  and  divide  by  4. 

10%. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days  and  divide 
by  36. 

12%.— Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  separate  the 
right-hand  figure  and  divide  by  3. 

The  following  method  of  computing  interest  for  short 
terms  is  an  accurate  and  speedy  one:  The  interest  on 
any  sum  for  60  days  at  6  per  cent,  can  be  found  by  draw- 
ing a  perpendicular  line  2  places  to  the  left  of  the  deci- 
mal point  of  the  principal.  The  result  will  be  the 
interest  in  dollars  and  cents.  Thus,  the  interest  on 
$2,035.45  for  60  days  at  6%  will  be  $20.35. 


DISCOUNT  RATES 

The  following  table  of  equivalent  discounts  will  be 
found  useful  by  those  in  whose  business  several  dif- 
ferent rates  of  discount  are  allowed  from  list  prices: 

10  and    5  off- 14^%  off 

IS  and    5  off=19^%  off 

20  and    5  off=24%  off 

20  and  10  off=28%  off 

25  and  10  off=32H%  off 

30,  10,  and  5  off =401/7%  off 

40,  10,  and  5  off=48y10%  off 

50  and  10  off  =55%  off 

60,  10,  and  5  off=65%%  off 

70,  10,  and  5  off=74%o%  off 


322  RULES  OF  BUSINESS 

YEARS     AT     WHICH     A     GIVEN     AMOUNT     WILL 
DOUBLE,    AT    SEVERAL    RATES    OF    INTEREST 


At  Compound  Interest 

At 

Rate 

% 

Single 
Interest 

Compounded 
Yearly 

Compounded 
Semi- 
Annually 

Compounded 
Quarterly 

1 

100 

69.666 

69.487 

69.400 

11 

66.66 

46.556 

46.382 

46.298 

2 

50.00 

35.004 

34.830 

34.743 

2t 

40.00 

28.071 

27.899 

27.812 

3 

33.33 

23.450 

23.278 

23.191 

3* 

28.57 

20.150 

19.977 

19.890 

4 

25.00 

17.673 

17.502 

17.415 

4| 

22.22 

15.748 

15.576 

15.490 

5 

20.00 

14.207 

14.036 

13.946 

51 

18.18 

12.946 

12.775 

12.686 

6 

16.67 

11.896 

11.725 

11.639 

*i 

15.38 

11.007 

10.836 

10.750 

7 

14.29 

10.245 

10.075 

9.989 

n 

13.33 

9.585 

9.914 

9.328 

8 

12.50 

9.006 

8.837 

8.751 

8| 

11.76 

8.497 

8.346 

8.241 

9 

11.11 

8.043 

7.874 

7.788 

9* 

10.52 

7.638 

7.468 

7.383 

10 

10.00 

7.273 

7.121 

7.026 

12 

8.34 

6.110 

LEGAL  HOLIDAYS  323 


LEGAL  HOLIDAYS 

Legal  holidays  are  days  set  apart  by  statute  or  by 
executive  authority  for  fasting  and  prayer,  or  those 
given  over  to  religious  observance  and  amusements,  or 
for  political,  moral,  or  social  duties  or  anniversaries,  or 
merely  for  popular  recreation  and  amusement  under  such 
penalties  and  provisions  alone  as  are  expressed  in 
positive  legislative  enactments. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  no  established  holidays 
of  a  religious  character  having  a  legal  status  without 
legislation.  The  days  established  by  statutory  or  by 
executive  authority,  which  are  observed  as  legal  holi- 
days, are  given  in  the  list  that  follows: 

January  1.  New  Year's  Day:  In  all  the  states  and 
territories  except  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

January  8.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans: 
In  Louisiana. 

January  19.  Lee's  Birthday:  In  Alabama,  Florida, 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 

February  12.  Lincoln's  Birthday:  In  Arizona,  Connecti- 
cut, Colorado,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  Washington,  and 
Wyoming. 

February  22.  Washington's  Birthday:  In  all  the  states 
and  territories  except  Mississippi  and  New  Mexico. 

March  2.     Texas  Independence  Day:    In  Texas. 

April  6.     Confederate  Memorial  Day:     In  Louisiana. 

April  19.     Patriot's  Day:    In  Massachusetts. 

April  21.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  San  Jacinto:  In 
Texas. 

April  26.  Confederate  Memorial  Day.  In  Alabama, 
Florida,  and  Georgia. 

May  10.  Confederate  Memorial  Day.  In  North  Caro- 
lina and  South  Carolina. 


324  LEGAL  HOLIDAYS 

May,  Second  Friday.  Confederate  Memorial  Day:  In 
Tennessee. 

May  20.  Anniversary  of  the  Signing  of  the  Mecklenburg 
Declaration  of  Independence:  In  North  Carolina. 

May  30.  Decoration  Day:  In  all  the  states  and  terri- 
tories except  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  Virginia. 

June  3.  Jefferson  Davis' s  Birthday:  In  Alabama,  Florida, 
Georgia,  and  South  Carolina. 

July  4.    Independence  Day:    In  all  states  and  territories. 

July  24.    Pioneer's  Day:    In  Utah. 

August  16.     Bennington  Battle  Day:  In  Vermont. 

September,  First  Monday.  Labor  Day:  In  all  the 
states  and  territories  except  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mis- 
sissippi, Nevada,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
and  Vermont. 

September  9.     Admission  Day:     In  California. 

October  12.  Columbus  Day:  In  California,  Colorado, 
Connecticut,  Maryland,  Missouri,  Montana,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 

October  31.    Admission  Day:    In  Nevada. 

November  1.     All  Saints'  Day:    In  Louisiana. 

November  25.  Labor  Day:  In  the  parish  of  Orleans, 
Louisiana. 

November,  Fourth  Thursday.  Thanksgiving  Day:  In 
all  the  states  and  territories.  The  exact  day  is  fixed 
by  the  proclamation  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  the  governors  of  the  states. 

December  25.  Christmas  Day:  In  all  the  states  and 
territories. 

Shrove  Tuesday.  Mardi  Gras:  In  Alabama  and  in  the 
parish  of  Orleans,  Louisiana. 

Good  Friday:  In  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Min- 
nesota, Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 

Arbor  Day:  In  Colorado,  third  Friday  in  April;  Idaho, 
last  Monday  in  April;  in  Nebraska,  April  22;  Utah, 
April  15.  This  day  is  observed  in  other  states  on  dates 
appointed  by  the  governors. 

' 


LEGAL  HOLIDAYS  325 

General  Election  Day,  being  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  of  November  in  every  year  when  such  elections 
are  held  is  a  holiday  in  Arizona,  California,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  Maryland, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Ore- 
gon, Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  South 
Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Washington,  West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming. 

Sundays  are  holidays,  and  also  any  day  appointed  by 
the  governor  in  any  of  the  several  states  as  a  fast  day, 
or  a  day  for  prayer.  There  are  no  statutory  holidays  in 
Mississippi,  but  by  common  consent  the  Fourth  of  *July, 
Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Christmas  are  observed  as  such. 
In  Kansas  the  only  legal  holidays  by  legislative  enact- 
ment are  February  22,  May  30,  first  Monday  of  Septem- 
ber, and  Thanksgiving  Day,  but  by  common  consent 
New  Year's  Day,  Fourth  of  July,  and  Christmas  are  also 
observed. 

Saturday,  after  12  o'clock  noon,  is  a  legal  holiday 
throughout  the  year  in  Connecticut,  District  of  Columbia, 
Florida,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Washington;  in  Louisiana-  and  Missouri,  in 
cities  of  100,000  inhabitants  and  over;  in  Ohio  and  Vir- 
ginia, in  cities  of  50,000  inhabitants  and  over;  in  Dela- 
ware, in  .  the  city  of  Wilmington  and  in  Newcastle 
county,  except  St.  George's  Hundred,  where  Saturdays 
from  June  to  September  only  are  holidays;  in  South 
Carolina,  in  Charleston  county;  and  in  Colorado,  in 
Denver  during  June,  July,  and  August. 

Holidays  falling  on  Sunday  are  'observed  the  day  be- 
fore in  Kansas,  Mississippi,  Nevada,  Vermont,  and  West 
Virginia,  and  on  the  same  day  in  Louisiana;  but  else- 
where in  the  United  States,  on  the  following  Monday. 

In  Canada  the  following  are  legal  holidays  in  all  the 
provinces:  New  Year's  Day,  Good  Friday,  Easter  Mon- 
day, Christmas  Day,  the  birthday  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign,  any  day  appointed  by  proclamation  for  a  public 


326  CORRESPONDENCE 

holiday  or  a  general  fast  or  thanksgiving,  and  the  day 
next  following  New  Year's,  Christmas,  and  the  sov- 
ereign's birthday,  when  these  days  fall  on  Sunday.  In 
Quebec,  in  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  are  ob- 
served: The  Epiphany,  the  Annunciation,  the  Ascension, 
Corpus  Christi,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul's  Day,  All  Saints' 
Day,  and  Conception  Day. 

In  England  and  Ireland  the  bank  holidays  are:  Good 
Friday,  Easter  Monday,  the  Monday  in  Whitsun  week, 
the  first  Monday  in  August,  sovereign's  birthday,  Christ- 
mas, and  the  26th  of  December  if  a  week  day;  in  Scot- 
land, New  Year's  Day,  Christmas  (if  either  day  fall  on 
Sunday,  then  the  following  Monday),  Good  Friday,  first 
Monday  in  May,  first  Monday  in  August,  and  the  sov- 
ereign's birthday.  In  addition  to  the  above,  any  day  so 
proclaimed  by  the  reigning  sovereign  is  to  be  observed 
as  a  bank  holiday  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  or 
in  any  part  thereof. 


CORRESPONDENCE 


LETTER  WRITING 

The  importance  of  letter  writing,  both  in  business  and 
as  an  educational  accomplishment,  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Business  must,  to  a  large  extent,  be  transacted 
by  means  of  correspondence;  and  one  of  the  leading 
requisites  of  business  success  is  the  ability  to  dis- 
charge the  important  duties  pertaining  to  correspondence 
in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  all  concerned. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  letter  are: 

1.  Heading,  including  date. 

2.  Address. 

3.  Salutation. 

4.  Body. 

5.  Complimentary  close. 

6.  Subscription,   or   signature. 

7.  Superscription,   or   outside   address. 


CORRESPONDENCE  327 

The  incidental  parts  are: 

1.  The  postscript,  with  its  continuations  or  iterations, 
paulo-postscript,  post-paulo-postscript,  and  so  on. 

2.  Nota  bene. 

3.  Enclosure. 

4.  Stamp. 

5.  Return  directions. 

The  writing  of  the  place  and  date  at  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  paper,  at  the  end  of  a  letter,  though 
quite  admissible  and  somewhat  customary  in  the  matter 
of  social  letters,  is,  in  the  case  of  business  letters, 
annoying  to  those  that  desire  to  note  at  once  the  date 
of  the  letter.  It  is  better  not  to  indulge  in  any  eccen- 
tricities in  such  matters.  For  people  that  do  not  have 
anything  else  to  do  it  may  be  allowable;  but  busy 
people  do  not  have  time  to  look  in  unusual  places  for 
headings,  addresses,  signatures,  etc. 

The  salutation  is  the  greeting,  as  "Dear  Sir,"  "Sir," 
"My  dear  George,"  and  the  like,  tvith  which  it  is  usual 
to  begin  a  letter.  What  the  salutation  shall  be  must  be 
determined,  of  course,  by  the  relation  between  the  writer 
and  the  party  addressed.  The  most  formal,  private,  or 
unofficial  salutations  are  "Sir"  and  "Madame."  These  are 
almost  impersonal  and  belong  to  such  persons  as  we  may 
wish  to  accost  with  civility.  "Sir"  is  the  correct  salu- 
tation in  addressing  officers  of  the  government  who  have 
no  special  title  inherent  in  the  office  they  hold.  When 
it  is  used  the  complimentary  close  should  be  "Yours 
respectfully,"  or  something  correspondingly  distant. 

General  Form.— The  following  letter  shows  the  usual 
arrangement  of  the  various  parts  of  an  ordinary  business 
letter.  If  the  street  address  is  given  in  the  heading,  the 
heading  and  date  should  be  written  in  two  lines;  if 
the  street  address  is  not  given,  the  heading  and  date 
should  be  written  in  one  line.  The  address,  if  of  more 
than  two  lines,  should  be  neatly  balanced.  A  colon 
should  follow  the  salutation;  a  dash  is  often  used  after 
the  colon,  but  this  is  unnecessary. 


328 


CORRESPONDENCE 


(Heading  and  Date) 
540  Sewell   St.,   PORTLAND,  ME., 
(Address)  February  22,  1912. 

MR.   JOHN   W.    PLAYFAIR, 

President  First  National  Bank, 
558  Jackson  Boulevard, 

Chicago,  111. 
(Salutation) 
DEAR  SIR: 

(Body) 

Mr.  George  Williams  of  your  city  has  called  to  interest 
me  in  the  purchase  of  a  large  tract  of  timber  and  mining 
lands  in  Northern  Wisconsin.  Mr.  Williams  impresses 
me  favorably,  and  his  propositions  appear  quite  reason- 
able on  their  face. 

I  have,  however,  deferred  giving  him  a  final  answer 
until  I  hear  from  you  regarding  his  standing  in  business 
circles  in  Chicago.  He  speaks  of  you  as  an  acquaintance, 
and  since  I  claim  you  as  a  friend,  your  advice  will  be 
as  welcome  as  it  must  be  valuable. 

(Complimentary  Close) 
I  am,  dear  sir, 

Very  sincerely  yours, 
(Signature) 

WILLIAM    HUTCHESON. 

The  superscription  is  the  outside  address — the  one  writ- 
ten on  the  envelope,  and  the  one  for  the  postmaster  and 


Return  in  5  days  to 
540  Sewell  St., 
Portland,  Me. 


Stamp 


MR.  JOHN  W.  PLAYFAIR, 
President  First  National  Bank, 
558  Jackson  Boulevard, 

Chicago,  111. 


CORRESPONDENCE  329 

the  letter  carrier  to  note.  Like  the  address,  the  super- 
scription consists  of  three  parts:  the  name,  the  title,  and 
the  business  address  or  residence. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  specimen  su- 
perscription. 

SUGGESTIONS 

The  first  and  most  important  rule  to  be  observed  by  a 
writer  of  a  letter  is  to  be  courteous. 

Neatness.— Always  be  careful,  in  the  writing  of  a 
letter,  to  avoid  blots,  corrections,  or  erasures.  Make  the 
letter  perfect  as  to  neatness,  even  if  it  has  to  be  re- 
written. An  essential  as  important  as  neatness  is 
correct  spelling. 

Brevity.— One  of  the  essential  qualities  of  business 
correspondence  that  cannot  be  too  strongly  dwelt  upon 
is  brevity,  for  business  men  have  no  time  to  waste,  and 
appreciate  conciseness  of  expression.  Brevity  of  ex- 
pression, if  combined  with  neatness,  clearness,  and 
courtesy  always  makes  a  good  impression  upon  the 
true  business  man.  One  of  the  greatest  helps  to  success 
in  any  walk  of  life  is  the  ability  to  express  ideas  ac- 
curately and  concisely. 

Deliberation.— No  one  should  write  a  letter  when 
angry,  nor,  as  a  rule,  when  inclined  to  say  severe 
things.  If  one  receives  a  letter  provoking  him  to  anger, 
it  is  better  to  wait  a  little  before  answering;  then 
probably  the  style  of  his  reply  will  be  entirely  changed. 
Words  hastily  spoken,  and  letters  written  in  haste 
or  anger,  one  usually  would  like  to  recall.  Hasty  or 
vindictive  words  make  enemies  and  endanger  business, 
while  kind  words  make  and  hold  friends.  Make  it  a 
rule  never  to  write  a  letter  when  strongly  excited. 

Many  writers  experience  difficulty  in  the  opening  and 
closing  sentences  of  a  letter.  The  opening  should  be 
perfectly  natural  and  should  introduce  the  subject  upper- 
most in  the  mind.  Avoid  in  the  opening  such  set 
phrases  as  "I  now  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  tell  you  that 
I  am  well,  etc.,"  "I  thought  I  would  drop  you  a  line 
to  let  you  know,  etc."  A  familiar  letter  usually  ends 


330  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

with  an  expression  of  compliment  or  affection  in  addition 
to  the  complimentary  close. 

Promptness  of  Answers.— From  the  standpoint  of  the 
recipient  of  the  letter,  correspondence  demands  close  and 
courteous  attention.  Letters,  especially  business  letters, 
should  be  answered  with  reasonable  promptness. 

Date  of  Letter  Answered.— The  answer  to  a  business 
letter  should  contain  a  reference  to  the  date  of  the  letter 
answered;  thus,  "In  answer  to  your  letter  of  the  10th 
inst." 

Enclosing  Stamp.— A  letter  asking  a  favor  or  treating 
of  business  in  which  only  the  writer  and  not  the  re- 
cipient is  interested,  should  have  a  stamp  enclosed  for 
an  answer. 

Legibility.— Do  not  write  so  that  your  correspondent 
will  be  unable  to  read  your  letter,  or  meet  with  great 
difficulty  in  so  doing.  Sign  your  name  to  the  letter, 
so  that  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt  as  to  the  spelling. 
Some  business  men  cultivate  a  characteristic  signature, 
which  they  use  for  checks  and  business  papers.  Such 
a  signature  is  often  purposely  almost  illegible,  and 
obviously  should  not  be  used  for  a  letter  except  to  a 
well-known  correspondent. 

~~ 

FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


PREPARATION 

In  every  place  where  a  large  number  of  persons  are 
employed  and  where  accidents  are  liable  to  occur,  a 
supply  of  articles  needed  to  render  first  aid  should  be 
available.  These  should  include  one  or  more  stretchers, 
bandages,  absorbent  cotton,  carron  oil  (equal  parts  of 
raw  linseed  oil  and  lime  water),  splints,  soap,  towels, 
blankets,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  etc.  The  neces- 
sary quantity  of  any  of  these  or  other  articles  depends 
on  the  nature  and  size  of  the  works. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  331 

Sterilizing.— Many  disease  germs  may  be  killed  by 
heat;  others  by  chemicals  called  disinfectants,  such  as 
bichloride  of  mercury,  carbolic  acid,  etc.  The  solutions 
used  in  washing  wounds  should  be  made  up  of  about 
the  following  strengths:  Bichloride  of  mercury,  15  gr. 
to  1  qt.  of  water;  or,  liquid  carbolic  acid,  2  teaspoonfuls 
to  1  qt.  of  water.  The  substances  should  be  thoroughly 
dissolved  before  the  solution  is  used. 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES 

FAINTING 

Fainting,  or  swooning,  with  loss  of  sensation,  motion, 
and  consciousness,  may  result  from  a  severe  blow  or 
wound,  from  loss  of  blood,  from  great  emotion  (extreme 
fear  or  joy),  from  electric  shocks,  etc.  The  patient  be- 
comes pale,  inanimate,  and  is  in  a  condition  of  apparent 
death;  if  not  soon  relieved,  death  may  result. 

The  patient  should  be  laid  with  the  head  lower  than 
the  feet,  and  ligatures  or  bands  of  some  sort  sho.uld  be 


FIG.  1 

tied  around  the  arms  and  legs  close  to  the  body,  so  as 
to  confine  the  circulation  to  the  trunk  and  head.  The 
tongue  should  be  kept  out  of  the  throat,  in  order  to 
allow  free  access  of  air,  and  the  respiration  may  be 


332 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


helped  by  pressing  in  and  down  on  the  ribs  and  chest 
and  allowing  the  chest  to  expand  by  its  own  elasticity. 
Artificial  Respiration.— The  process  just  described  is 
one  form  of  artificial  respiration,  and  may  in  some  cases 
be  effective.  If  the  desired  results  are  not  soon  obtained, 
place  the  patient  on  his  back  with  a  pad  (a  roll  of  cloth- 
ing will  do)  under  the  back  just  below  the  shoulders, 
so  as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  The  patient's 
tongue  should  be  drawn  out  and  held  by  an  assistant, 
or,  it  should  be  fastened  against  the  lower  teeth  by 
a  rubber  band  passing  under  the  chin  or  clasped  be- 
tween the  patient's  teeth,  the  lower  jaw  being  held  up 
by  a  bandage  tied  over  the  head.  Grasp  the  forearms 
half  way  between  the  elbows  and  wrists,  and  draw  the 
arms  back  rather  quickly  but  steadily  in  vertical  planes 
until  they  meet  above  the  patient's  head,  as  in  Fig.  1, 
and  hold  them  thus  for  2  sec.  This  motion  draws  the 
ribs  up,  expands  the  chest,  and  air-  enters.  Now  bring 
the  arms  back  to  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  press  firmly 


FIG.  2 

on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  chest  over  the  lower  ribs, 
as  in  Fig.  2;  the  object  of  this  movement  is  to  contract 
the  chest  and  force  the  air  out  ot  the  lungs.  If  enough 
assistants  are  present,  one  can  stand  astride  the  patient 
and  press  firmly  against  the  sides  and  top  of  the  chest 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

while  the  arms  are  held  down  along  the  sides.  This 
series  of  movements,  constituting  one  inspiration  and 
one  expiration,  should  be  repeated  about  once  every 
4  sec.,  or  fifteen  times  per  min.,  for  \l/2  or  2  hr.  if 
necessary,  unless  in  the  meantime  a  physician  pro- 
nounces life  extinct.  While  working  over  the  patient 
prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons,  avoid  rough 
usage,  and  do  not  allow  the  patient  to  remain  on  his 
back  unless  his  tongue  is  secured.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  patient  be  held  up  by  his  feet,  nor 
should  he  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  unless  under  medical 
direction. 

TRAUMATIC   SHOCK 

Severe  injuries  may  sometimes  result  in  traumatic 
shock  (trauma  meaning  wound),  in  which  the  victim 
appears  confused  and  listless  and  perhaps  stupefied,  but 
not  unconscious.  The  pulses  and  respiration  are  per- 
ceptible, though  feeble  and  irregular.  Sometimes  the 
bowels  move  involuntarily.  Intelligence  is  not  usually 
wholly  lost,  and  the  patient  can  be  made  to  respond  to 
questions  if  repeatedly  urged.  This  condition  may  last 
a  few  moments  or  several  hours,  and  may  terminate  in 
death. 

Place  the  patient  in  a  horizontal  position  with  head 
lowered,  and  warm  him  by  rubbing  and  by  using  warm 
linen  or  blankets.  Let  him  inhale  the  odor  from  dilute 
ammonia  water.  If  he  can  swallow,  give  a  little  hot 
brandy  and  water  with  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  water 
added;  1  teaspoonful  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in 
a  wineglassful  of  water  is  also  good.  From  2  to  4  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  turpentine  in  a  quart  of  water,  as  hot  as 
may  be  used  without  discomfort,  may  be  injected  into 
the  bowels,  often  with  good  results. 

Wounds  consisting  of  severe  bruises  are  sometimes 
characterized  by  numbness,  coldness,  and  absence  of 
bleeding  until  reaction  begins.  In  such  cases,  use 
stimulants  and  antiseptics  and  keep  the  injured  part  as 
quiet  as  possible  and  protected  by  warm  dressing. 


334 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


blood  flows  from  the  heart  to 
5  body,  and  the  veins  are  the 
the  blood  returns  to  the  heart. 

network  of  very  minute   tubes 


HEMORRHAGE,  OR  BLEEDING 

Hemorrhage,    or   bleeding,    may    come    from   the   arteries, 
the    veins,    or    the    capillaries.      The    arteries    are    the 
channels   through   which   blood   flows   from   the   heart   to 
the   various   parts    of   the 
channels   through  which  the 
The   capillaries  form  the 

through  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  arteries  to  the 
veins  and  by  which  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  are 
nourished. 

Arterial  hemorrhage  is  usually  distinguished  by  the 
bright  red  color  of  the  blood  and  the  regular  pulsations 
with  which  it  issues  from  the  blood  vessels;  venous 
hemorrhage  can  be  known  by  the  dark-blue  tint  of  the 
blood  and  the  steadiness  of  its  flow;  in  capillary  hemor- 
rhage, the  blood  has  a  reddish  tint  and  exudes  from  the 
tissues  or  wells  up  from  the  surface  of  the  wound. 
Internal  hemorrhage  may  exist  without  any  external  flow 
of  blood. 

After  excessive  loss  of  blood,  the  patient's  face  and 
lips  turn  pale;  he  experiences  chills,  cold  sweats,  nausea, 
frequent  vomiting,  irregular  respiration,  feeble  pulse, 
dizziness,  buzzing  in  the  ears,  and  finally  unconscious- 
ness, terminating  either  in  death  or  in  cessation  of  the 


bleeding.      In    the    latter    case,    consciousness    may    soon 


return,    but    very    often    the    tendency    to    fainting    fits 
persists   for  a  time. 

Capillary  hemorrhage  is  ar- 
rested by  bathing  the 
wounded  part  in  cold  steril- 
ized water  and  bandaging  it 
with  a  pad,  or  compress  of 
sterilized  gauze  or  lint. 

Venous  hemorrhage  is 
more  serious  and  cannot  always  be  stopped  by  binding 
a  pad  over  the  wound;  in  this  case,  the  limb  must  be 
bandaged  on  the  side  of  the  wound  away  from  the 
heart.  The  limb  should  be  raised  and  held  above  the 


FIG.  3 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


335 


rest  of  the  body  and  the  patient  should  be  made   to   lie 
perfectly    quiet. 

Arterial  hemorrhage  is  more  serious  than  either  of  the 
others.  If  a  large  artery  or  a  number  of  small  ones 
are  ruptured,  the  blood  may  escape  so  rapidly  that  death 
occurs  almost  at  once.  Pressure  enough  to  stop  the  flow 
should  be  applied  to  the  artery  where  it  passes  over  a 
bone  between  the  wound  and  the  heart.  The  location  of 
the  artery  is  revealed  by  the  distinct  pulsations.  Pres- 


FIG.  4 


sure  applied  with  the  fingers  will  answer  temporarily, 
and  this  method  affords  a  way  of  finding  the  proper 
spot  on  which  to  press.  A  knot  or  any  hard  substance, 
in  a  handkerchief  or  a  bandage  may  then  be  placed  on 
the  spot,  tied  loosely  around  the  limb,  and  twisted  with 
a  stick,  as  in  Fig.  3,  until  bleeding  ceases.  The  stick 
may  be  then  be  fastened  with  another  bandage. 

The  course  of  the  main  (brachial)  artery  in  the  arm  is 
well  indicated  by  the  inner  sleeve  seam  of  a  man's  coat; 
this  artery  can  be  compressed  by  grasping  the  arm  by 


336 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


either  method   (a)   or   (6),   Fig.  4.     The   pressure   should 
always  be  downwards  against  the  bone  and  not  against 


FIG.  6 


soft  muscle.  The  subclavian  artery  supplying  blood  to 
the  arm  may  be  closed  by  applying  pressure  in  the  hol- 
low just  above  the  collar  bone,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
The  temporal  artery  runs  up  the  side  of  the  forehead, 
and  may  be  closed  by  applying  a  pad,  as  in  Fig.  6. 
The  femoral  artery  runs  from  the  groin  down  a  little 
inside  of  the  front  of  the  leg  about  one-third  the  dis- 
tance to  'the  knee,  then  passes  through  the  muscles 
and  approaches  the  surface  again  behind  the  knee. 


FIG. 


FIG.  8 


Pressure  applied  as  at  P,  Fig.  7,  may  stop  bleeding 
from  a  wound  above  the  knee,  and  a  pad  applied  as  in 
Fig.  8  is  applicable  for  a  wound  below  the  knee. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  337 

ELECTRIC  SHOCK 

Electric  shock  may  produce  severe  burns,  unconscious- 
ness, or  death,  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  current 
through  the  body  as  well  as  on  its  duration  and  flow. 
If  the  skin  is  thin  and  moist  and  the  contacts  with  the 
conductors  good,  comparatively  low  voltage,  220  or  pos- 
sibly less,  may  be  sufficient  to  send  considerable  current 
through  the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  a  person  with 
thick,  dry  skin,  as  on  the  palms  of  the  hands,  may 
sometimes  make  slight  accidental  contact  with  a  circuit 
of  several  thousand  volts  without  serious  results.  A 
very  small  current  through  the  region  of  the  heart  may 
paralyze  its  action  and  cause  death;  currents  of  greater 
density  stimulate  the  heart  to  increased  action,  but 
paralyze  the  nerve  centers  controlling  respiration  and  may 
cause  death  by  suffocation,  the  same  as  in  drowning. 

Accidental  contact  with  an  electric  conductor  should 
be  broken  as  quickly  as  possible;  if  maintained  until 
heart  action  ceases,  as  a  result  of  suffocation,  death 
invariably  results.  In  breaking  the  contact  (provided, 
of  course,  the  power  cannot  be  immediately  turned  off 
the  circuit),  use  the  feet  to  push  the  victim  and  the 
conductor  apart — never  the  hands.  Current  passing 
from  one  foot  through  the  legs  and  the  other  foot  to 
ground  does  comparatively  little  injury,  since  the  im- 
portant nerve  centers  and  the  heart  are  not  in  its 
path.  As  soon  as  the  contact  is  broken,  the  victim,  if 
he  has  not  lost  consciousness,  soon  recovers.  If  the 
victim  is  unconscious  but  has  not  ceased  breathing,  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  revive  him,  the  same  as  in  an 
ordinary  fainting  fit.  If  respiration  has  ceased,  artificial 
respiration  should  be  tried  and  continued  for  some  time, 
even  though  the  heart  action  is  so  feeble  as  to  be  almost 
imperceptible.  The  first  and  most  important  requirement 
in  producing  respiration  by  artificial  means  is  to  hold 
the  tongue  so  that  it  cannot  obstruct  the  throat. 

Burns  caused  by  contact  with  electric  conductors 
should  be  protected  with  sterilized  gauze.  Such  burns 


338  FIRST  AW  TO  THE  INJURED 

are  generally  deep,  sometimes  even  carbonizing  the 
bones,  especially  those  of  the  fingers.  They  heal  quickly, 
however — ordinarily  in  from  3  to  6  weeks. 

WOUNDS 

Before  being  used  on  a  wound,  all  instruments,  band- 
ages, etc.,  should  be  sterilized  by  heating  in  steam  or 
boiling  water  or  by  baking  or  by  treating  with  a  germ- 
destroying  solution.  The  water  used  in  washing  a 
wound  should  first  be  boiled,  in  fact  nothing  unsterilized 
should  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  wounded 
surface.  The  germs  entering  a  wound  from  the  skin  of  the 
patient  or  from  the  object  that  produced  the  wound  may 
be  removed  by  thoroughly  washing  with  sterilized  water, 
and  the  sterilized  dressings  will  prevent  further  infection. 

The  first  treatment  of  a  wound  includes  checking  the 
bleeding;  the  removal  of  all  foreign  matter  and  a 
thorough  washing;  drawing  the  lips  of  the  wound  to- 
gether or  gently  straightening  bruised  or  torn  flesh; 
applying  several  layers  of  sterilized  gauze,  with  absorb- 
ent cotton  next  the  wound  if  it  is  likely  to  bleed  or 
discharge,  and  holding  all  in  place  with  a  suitable 
bandage.  Sterilized  adhesive  strips  are  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  hold  the  v/ound  together. 

FRACTURES 

The  signs  of  fracture  are:  (.1)  Loss  of  power  in  the 
limb,  or  part,  injured.  (2)  Pain  and  swelling  at  the 
seat  of  the  injury.  (3)  Distortion  of  the  injured  limb 
—it  will  be  longer  or  shorter  than  the  other  or  will  lie 
in  some  unnatural  position.  By  gentle  pulling,  the  limb 
may  be  brought  back  to  its  natural  shape,  but  on  being 
released  will  immediately  return  to  the  distorted  posi- 
tion. (4)  On  gently  moving  the  limb,  a  grating  sensation 
(crepitation)  may  be  felt  where  the  ends  of  the  broken 
bone  rub  against  each  other.  (5)  If  near  the  surface, 
the  break  may  be  felt  from  'the  outside.  A  fracture 
should  be  handled  with  extreme  gentleness;  rough  usage 
may  do  much  harm. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


339 


Before    attempting   to   move    a   patient    suffering   from 
fracture,  the  injured  part  should  be  supported  in  a  rigid 


FIG.  9 

position  by  tying  on  splints.  Almost  any  substance  stiff 
enough  to  support  the  injured  part  will  answer  for  a 
temporary  splint;  for  example,  a  stocking  leg  or  a  coat 
sleeve  filled  with  earth,  sand,  moss,  hay,  chaff,  or  paper 
and  securely  tied  at  each  end,  a  barrel  stave,  a  piece 
of  board,  a  roll  of  paper,  etc.  If  hard  substances  are 
used  for  splints,  the  leg  should  be  padded.  If  feasible, 
the  splints  should  extend  past  the  nearest  joints,  and 
should  be  securely  bandaged  so  that  both  the  fracture 
and  the  joints  are  held 
rigid,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

Until  the  physician  comes, 
a  fractured  jaw  should  be 
held  in  place  by  a  bandage 
passed  under  the  chin  and 
over  the  head.  If  the  collar 
bone  is  broken,  the  arm 
should  be  raised  gently,  and 
a  pad  made  by  tightly  roll- 
ing a  handkerchief  or  a  piece 
of  cloth  should  be  placed 
in  the  armpit;  the  forearm 


FIG.  10 


should  be  supported  horizontally  across  the  chest  by  a 
large  arm  sling,  and  the  arm  and  sling  should  be  held 
firmly  in  position  by  a  broad  bandage  placed  around  the 


340  [  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

body  and  just  above  the  elbow.  Fractured  ribs  may  be 
temporarily  treated  by  fastening  broad  bandages  around 
the  body,  tying  the  knot  on  the  side  opposite  the  frac- 
ture, as  in  Fig.  10. 

DISLOCATIONS  AND  SPRAINS 

A  dislocation  is  the  displacement  of  the  bones  of  a  joint. 
Ordinarily,  a  physician  is  needed,  and  little  can  be  done 
before  his  arrival  except  to  make  the  patient  as  com- 
fortable as  possible. 

A  sprain  should  be  kept  very  quiet.  If  possible,  keep 
the  injured  member  in  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne 
for  ll/2  hr.  or  more;  then  bandage  with  moderate  firmness 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  any  movement  of  the 
joint,  using  splints  for  this  purpose  if  necessary. 

EFFECTS  OF  HEAT 

Burns.— -The  general  treatment  of  a  burn  consists  in 
relieving  the  pain,  in  combating  the  depression,  and 
increasing  the  warmth  of  the  patient.  The  pain  may 
usually  be  relieved  by  excluding  the  air  from  the  burned 
portion;  stimulants  should  be  given,  if  necessary,  to 
relieve  the  depression.  A  covering  of  flour  may  be 
spread  over  the  burned  surface;  or  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
either  in  the  form  of  paste  or  powder,  can  be  used;  any 
oil,  such  as  sweet  oil,  raw  linseed  oil,  or  carron  oil,  or 
a  dressing,  such  as  vaseline,  cold  cream,  etc.,  is 
effective. 

In  removing  the  clothing  from  over  a  burn  or  in 
dressing  it,  the  blisters  should  not  be  broken.  If  any 
clothing  adheres,  it  should  be  saturated  with  oil  and 
allowed  to  remain.  The  patient  should  not  be  exposed 
to  cold. 

Heat  exhaustion  is  generally  accompanied  by  weakness, 
cool  skin,  pale  face,  weak  voice,  rapid  and  feeble  pulse, 
increased  respiration,  dim  vision,  and  possibly  by  un- 
consciousness. The  patient  should  be  placed  in  a 
horizontal  position  with  the  head  low,  and  stimulants 
and  hot  applications  should  be  administered.  Occasional 
doses  of  brandy  should  be  given,  also  a  teaspoonful  of 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  341 

aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  a  little  hot  milk  or 
water  every  half  hour.  If  the  patient  cannot  swallow, 
these  remedies  may  be  injected  into  the  rectum. 

Sunstroke,  which  may  occur  in  any  hot,  moist  tern 
perature,  is  accompanied  by  high  fever.  In  a  few  cases, 
unconsciousness  and  death  come  very  quickly;  but 
usually  the  progressive  symptoms  are  intense  headache, 
dizziness,  oppression,  nausea,  vomiting,  occasionally 
diarrhea,  and  unconsciousness  with  delirium  and  rest- 
lessness. The  face  is  flushed,  the  eyes  bloodshot,  the 
skin  very  hot  and  dry  (temperature  from  107°  to  112°  F.), 
the  breathing  labored  and  sometimes  noisy,  and  the 
pulse  frequent  and  full. 

Both  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  are  directly 
opposite  those  for  heat  exhaustion.  In  cases  of  sun- 
stroke, every  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the 
excessive  bodily  temperature.  Rubbing  with  ice,  a 
cold  bath,  a  cold  pack,  and  cold  rectal  injections  are 
all  good. 


RESTORING  OF  APPARENTLY 
DROWNED  PERSONS 


TREATMENT    WHEN    SEVERAL    ASSIST- 
ANTS ARE  AT  HAND 

As  soon  as  the  patient  is  taken  from  the  water,  expose 
the  face  to  the  air,  toward  the  wind  if  there  is  any,  and 
wipe  dry  the  mouth  and  nostrils;  rip  the  clothing  so  as 
to  expose  the  chest  and  waist,  and  give  two  or  three 
quick,  smarting  slaps  on  the  chest  with  the  open  hand. 
If  the  patient  does  not  revive,  proceed  immediately 
to  expel  water  from  the  stomach  and  chest,  as  follows: 
Separate  the  jaws  and  keep  them  apart  by  placing  be- 
tween the  teeth  a  cork  or  small  bit  of  wood;  turn  the 
patient  on  his  face,  a  large  bundle  of  tightly  rolled 
clothing  being  placed  beneath  the  stomach  (see  Fig.  1); 


342 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


press  heavily  on  the  back  over  the  stomach  for.J^  min., 
or  as  long  as  fluids  flow  freely  from  the  mouth. 

To  Produce  Breathing.— Clear  the  mouth  and  throat  of 
mucus  by  introducing  into  the  throat  the  corner  of  a 
handkerchief  wrapped  closely  around  the  forefinger; 
turn  the  patient  on  the  back,  the  roll  of  clothing  being 
so  placed  as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach  above  the 
level  of  the .  rest  of  the  body  (see  Fig.  2).  Let  an 
assistant,  with  a  handkerchief  or  piece  of  dry  cloth, 
draw  the  tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one  corner  of  the  mouth 
(which  prevents  the  tongue  from  falling  back  and 


FiG.  1 


choking  the  entrance  to  the  windpipe),  and  keep  it 
projecting  a  little  beyond  the  lips.  Let  another  assistant 
grasp  the  arms  just  below  the  elbows  and  draw  them 
steadily  upwards  by  the  side  of  the  patient's  head,  and 
to  the  ground,  the  hands  nearly  meeting  (which  enlarges 
the  capacity  of  the  chest  and  induces  inspiration). 
While  this  is  being  done,  let  a  third  assistant  take  a 
position  astride  the  patient's  hips,  with  his  elbows  rest- 
ing on  his  own  knees,  his  hands  extended  ready  for 
action.  Next,  let  the  assistant  standing  at  the  head  turn 
down  the  patient's  arms  to  the  side  of  the  body 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


343 


(see  Fig.  3),  the  assistant  holding  the  tongue  changing 
hands,  if  necessary,  to  let  the  arm  pass.  Just  before 
the  patient's  hands  reach  the  ground,  the  man  astride 
the  body  will  grasp  the  body  with  his  hands,  the  balls 
of  the  thumbs  resting  on  either  side  of  the  pit  of  the 
stomach,  the  fingers  falling  into  grooves  between  the 
short  ribs.  Now,  using  his  knees  as  a  pivot,  he  will 
at  the  moment  the  patient's  hands  touch  the  ground 
throw  (not.  too  suddenly)  all  his  weight  forwards  on 
his  hands,  and  at  the  same  time  squeeze  the  waist 
between  them,  as  if  he  wished  to  force  something  in 
the  chest  upwards  out  of  the  mouth;  he  will  increase 


FIG.  2 


the  pressure  while  he  slowly  counts  one,  two,  three, 
four  (about  5  sec.),  then  suddenly  let  go  with  a  final 
push,  which  will  spring  him  back  to  his  first  position. 
This  completes  expiration. 


344 


FIRST  AW  TO  THE  INJURED 


Repeat  these  movements,  deliberately  and  persevef- 
ingly,  12  to  15  times  in  every  minute — thus  imitating  the 
natural  motions  of  breathing. 

If   natural    breathing   is    not   restored   after   a   trial   of 
the    bellows    movement    for   the    space    of   about   4 
then    turn    the    pati< 
rolling  the  body 
which    it    was    fir; 

the  air  passage  from  any  remaining  water.  Continue 
the  artificial  respiration  from  1  to  4  hr.,  or  until  the 
patient  breathes,  according  to  the  preceding  instructions; 


^auiiiiig       JLO      inju      itOUUlGU.      dll-Cl       a.       Hldi      Ul 

ivement  for  the  space  of  about  4  min., 
patient  a  second  time  on  the  stomach, 
y  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in 
first  turned,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 


FIG.  3 


and  for  a  time,  after  the  appearance  of  returning  life, 
carefully  aid  the  short  gasps  until  deepened  into  full 
breaths.  Continue  the  drying  and  rubbing,  which  should 
have  been  unceasingly  practiced  from  the  beginning  by 
assistants,  taking  care  not  to  interfere  with  the  means 
used  to  produce  breathing.  Thus,  the  limbs  of  the 
patient  should  be  rubbed,  always  in  an  upward  direction 
toward  the  body  with  firm,  grasping  pressure  and  energy, 
using  the  bare  hands,  dry  flannels,  or  handkerchiefs,  and 
continuing  the  friction  under  the  blankets  or  over  the 
dry  clothing.  The  warmth  of  the  body  can  also  be 
promoted  by  the  application  of  hot  flannels  to  the 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  345 

stomach  and  armpits  and  bottles  or  bladders  of  hot  wa- 
ter, heated  bricks,  etc.  to  the  limbs  and  soles  of  the  feet. 

After  Treatment.— When  breathing  has  been  estab- 
lished, let  the  patient  be  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing, 
wrapped  in  blankets  only,  put  to  bed  comfortably 
warm,  but  with  free  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  left  to 
perfect  rest.  Give  whisky,  or  brandy,  and  hot  water 
in  doses  of  a  teaspoonful,  or  a  tablespoonful,  according 
to  the  weight  of  the  patient,  or  any  other  stimulant  at 
hand,  every  10  or  15  min.  for  the  first  hour,  and  as 
often  thereafter  as  may  seem  expedient.  After  reaction 
is  fully  established,  there  is  great  danger  of  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs,  and  if  perfect  rest  is  not  maintained 
for  at  least  48  hr.  it  sometimes  occurs  that  the  patient 
is  seized  with  great  difficulty  of  breathing,  and  death 
is  liable  to  follow  unless  immediate  relief  is  afforded. 
In  such  cases,  apply  a  large  mustard  plaster  over  the 
breast.  If  the  patient  gasps  for  breath  before  the 
mustard  takes  effect,  assist  the  breathing  by  carefully 
repeating  the  artificial  respiration. 

The  foregoing  treatment  should  be  persevered  in  for 
some  hours,  as  it  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons 
are  irrecoverable  because  life  does  not  soon  make  its 
appearance. 


MODIFICATION   OF  TREATMENT 

To  Produce  Respiration.— If  no  assistant  is  at  hand 
and  one  person  must  work  alone,  place  the  patient  on 
his  back  with  the  shoulders  slightly  raised  on  a  folded 
article  of  clothing;  draw  forward  the  tongue  and  keep 
it  projecting  just  beyond  the  lips;  if  the  lower  jaw 
be  lifted,,  the  teeth  may  be  made  to  hold  the  tongue  in 
place;  it  may  be  necessary  to  retain  the  tongue  by  pass- 
ing a  handkerchief  under  the  chin  and  tying  it  over 
the  head.  Grasp  the  arms  just  below  the  elbows  and 
steadily  draw  them  upwards  by  the  sides  of  the  patient's 
head  to  the  ground,  the  hands  nearly  meeting,  as  shown 


346 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


in    Fig.    1.      Next,    lower    the    arms    to    the    sides    and 
press   firmly    downwards   and   inwards   on   the   sides   and. 


FIG.  1 

front  of  the  chest  over  the  lower  ribs,  drawing  toward 
the  patient's  head,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Repeat  these 
movements  12  to  15  times  every  minute,  etc. 


FIG.  2 

Remarks.— Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons 
round  the  body,  especially  if  in  an  apartment. 

Under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body  up  by  the  feet. 

On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a  warm  bath,  unless 
under  medical  direction,  and  even  then  it  should  be 
employed  only  as  a  momentary  excitant. 


MEMORANDA 


MEMORANDA 


MEMORANDA 


MEMORANDA 


Secured 
Through  the 

POULTRY  FARMING 

Poultry  Breeding 

General  Farming 

Soil  Improvement 

Farm  Crops 

LIVESTOCK  AND  DAIRYING 


COURSES  OF  INSTRUCTION 
OF  THE 

International 
Correspondence  Schools 

International  Textbook 
Company,    Proprietors 

SCRANTON,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 
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AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  TURNS  FAILURE  INTO  SUCCESS 

S.  R.  EMERICK,  733  W.  2d  St.,  Shelbyville,  Ind.:  "The 
day  that  the  I.C.S.  knocked  at  my  door,  I  was  not  in 
any  position  to  make  money,  in  fact  I  was  not  fit  for 
anything.  The  day  I  enrolled  for  my  Poultry  Farming 
Course  was  the  best  day  of  my  life,  for  it  has  made  a 
man  of  me.  I  am  now  my  own  employer,  being  the 
owner  of  "The  Natural  Poultry  Yard,"  having  taken  up 
the  breeding  of  utility  birds  and  breeding  for  egg  pro- 
duction. The  Lesson  Papers  of  my  Course  are  my  busi- 
ness guides.  Any  one  who  will  follow  the  instructions  as 
set  forth  in  the  Course  cannot  help  but  succeed,  for  the 
Lesson  Papers  are  easy  to  understand  and  to  remember. 
Any  one  who  thinks  of  going  into  the  poultry  business 
should  first  let  the  I.C.S.  prepare  him  for  success." 


AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  IS  BEST 

A.  E.  EASTMAN,  47-51  Birch  St.,  Manchester,  N.  H.: 
"Your  Course  in  Poultry  Farming  treats  the  subject  thor- 
oughly in  all  its  branches.  Although  I  have  read  many 
poultry  books  and  am  a  subscriber  to  several  poultry 
papers,  I  received  many  valuable  suggestions  from  the 
Course  that  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  from  any  other 
source.  I  can  cheerfully  recommend  your  Course  of  in- 
struction to  any  one  desiring  a  full  knowledge  of  poultry 
raising." 

GAINED  $1.50  PER  BIRD 

JOHN  CLARK,  Box  8,  Norman  Place,  Tenafly,  N.  J.: 
"I  have  found  your  Poultry  Farming  Course  very  bene- 
ficial to  me.  Before  I  took  up  the  Course  I  was  losing 
money  on  my  birds,  but  this  past  year  I  have  gained  an 
average  of  $1.50  per  bird.  This  I  would  not  have  been 
able  to  do  if  I  had  not  taken  your  Course." 


A  GRADUATE'S  SUCCESS 

W.  A.  SLATER,  Box  115,  Jamestown,  N.  Y.:  "Your 
I.C.S.  Poultry  Course  I  found  very  practical  and  a  benefit 
to  me  in  many  ways.  When  I  started  into  the  chicken 
business,  the  second  year  I  lost  50  per  cent,  of  my  stock. 
After  graduating  from  your  Course,  I  have  this  year 
raised  95  per  cent,  of  the  chicks  hatched  and  have  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  more  eggs  from  my  flocks  than  ever 
before.  I  am  now  manager  of  Slater's  Poultry  Farm." 


Failed  Repeatedly — Now 
Successful 

I  cannot  recommend  your  Course  in  Poultry 
Husbandry  too  highly,  as  it  has  made  me  a  suc- 
cess after  repeated  failures.  It  is  the  most 
complete  Course  in  Poultry  Husbandry  that 
has  ever  come  to  my  notice.  It  covers  every 
branch  and  detail  of  poultry  farming.  I  have 
bought  about  every  book  advertised,  the  writers 
of  which  gave  an  outline  of  how  they  ran  their 
farms  but  stopped  at  the  gate,  but  your  Course 
taught  me  how  to  raise  my  own  poultry  and  run 
my  little  farm.  Your  Course  taught  me  what 
to  do  and  why  to  do  it.  I  am  no  longer  in  the 
dark  concerning  poultry.  My  hens  laid  70  per 
cent,  more  eggs  in  the  first  half  of  this  year 
than  they  ever  laid  in  a  whole  year  before. 
Your  lessons  on  diseases  of  poultry  have  saved 
many  a  growing  chick  for  me  this  season.  My 
loss  of  young  chicks  this  season  through  natural 
causes  has  been  less  than  7  per  cent,  of  all  chicks 
hatched.  Last  season  my  loss  from  natural 
causes  was  about  60  per  cent. 

Every  person  that  contemplates  going  into 
the  poultry  business,  or  those  who  have  failed, 
should  enroll  in  your  Schools,  for  it  will  make 
one  a  success  from  the  start,  and  it  will  make  a 
success  out  of  a  failure. 

WM.  T.  SCHEIDE, 

R.  F.  D.  1,  Lima,  Ohio. 


AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  WOULD  HAVE  SAVED  HIM  $5,000 

WALTER  B.  DAVIS,  Davis  Poultry  Farm,  Kings  Highway 
and  E.  23d  St.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. :  "I  have  about  com- 
pleted your  Course  on  Poultry  Farming  and  I  beg  to  state 
that  I  consider  it  the  greatest  asset  a  poultry  farmer  can 
have  to  begin  with.  It  covers  the  details  in  every  way. 
From  my  own  personal  experience  I  can  safely  say  that 
had  I  been  familiar  with  this  Course  a  year  ago  I  would 
have  saved  $5,000  on  my  poultry  farm.  (This  figure  is  a 
conservative  estimate.)" 

DOUBLES    HIS    SALARY 

PAUL  GELUK,  c/o  Patterson  Ranch,  Oxnard,  Calif.:  "I 
was  a  foreman  in  the  Dundee  Chemical  Works  when  I 
decided  to  enroll  for  the  Complete  Poultry  Course.  At 
the  present  time  I  have  charge  of  the  Poultry  Depart- 
ment for  the  Patterson  Ranch  Company  at  Oxnard,  Calif. 
My  salary  since  the  time  of  enrolment  has  been  doubled. 
While  I  did  not  have  much  education  before  enrolling,  I 
experienced  no  difficulty,  as  your  Lesson  Papers  are 
easy  to  learn.  All  the  advancement  I  have  made  is  en- 
tirely through  my  I.C.S.  Course,  as  I  never  handled  any 
poultry  before  I  took  charge  here." 

A  CITY  MAN'S  SUCCESS 

J.  K.  SHAUGHNESSY,  Federal  St.,  Agawam,  Mass.:  "I 
had  always  hankered  for  country  life  and  chickens.  If 
any  man  will  invest  in  the  I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming  Course 
he  will  have  no  trouble  to  make  a  success  of  the  busi- 
ness. My  present  position,  secured  through  your  Stu- 
dents' Aid  Department,  is  that  of  manager  and  half 
owner  of  the  Sanitary  Poultry  Yards.  We  have  a  ca- 
pacity of  1,600  layers  and  expect  to  increase  each  year. 
I  am  dry  picking  all  my  market  stock  and  am  getting 
ten  cents  more  per  pound  than  any  man  around  this 
section  and  also  top  prices  for  my  eggs." 

GAINED  A  POSITION  AS  MANAGER 

C.  W.  LARSON,  R.  F.  D.  No.  3,  Box  40- A,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.:  "I  was  working  as  a  clerk  when  I  enrolled  with 
the  I.C.S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course.  I  would 
strongly  advise  any  one  who  contemplates  going  into  the 
poultry  industry  to  take  up  this  Course  which  will  assure 
him  all  success.  It  was  because  I  was  known  to  be  a 
student  of  your  Course  that  I  was  aJble  to  secure  a  posi- 
tion as  manager  of  the  Victoria  Poultry  Farm,  an  up-to- 
date  plant,  at  a  good  salary.  You  are  at  liberty  to  refer 
prospective  students  to  me." 

5 


The  I.  C.  S.  a  Public 
Benefactor 

I  have  just  received  my  Diploma  in  your 
Agricultural  Course,  and  am  much  pleased 
with  the  painstaking  manner  in  which  my 
Instruction  Papers  were  handled  by  your  people. 
The  proposition,  in  a  nutshell,  is  that,  if  the 
student  does  his  (or  her)  part,  the  I.  C.  S.  will 
do  theirs. 

The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  Course  in 
Agriculture  in  the  I.  C.  S.  are  manifold;  the 
most  important,  perhaps,  is  that  it  teaches  the 
tiller  of  the  soil  to  grow  not  only  a  better  crop, 
but  realize  a  greater  production,  as  well  as  to 
do  it  with  a  great  deal  less  of  labor  and  expense, 
thereby  making  the  tilling  of  the  soil  more  of 
a  pleasure  than  a  drudge.  Farmers,  as  well 
as  others,  are  waking  up  to  the  truth  that 
scientific  farming  is  the  otily  proper  method  to 
pursue,  especially  in  these  days  of  worn-out 
land,  problems  of  drainage,  and  other  things 
too  numerous  to  mention.  In  this  connection, 
your  instruction  on  manures  is  worth  the  price 
of  the  whole  Course.  I  might  say  the  same  of 
your  instruction  on  drainage,  etc. 

I  have  endeavored  to  make  my  letter  brief, 
but,  on  account  of  the  great  scope  or  mag- 
nitude of  your  Agricultural  Course,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  say  it  all  upon  a  hundred  sheets 
of  paper  of  this  size. 

Any  one  who  can  show  how  two  plants  can 
be  grown  where  but  one  could  be  made  to  grow 
before,  and  with  less  labor,  expense,  etc.,  is  no 
less  than  a  public  benefactor,  and  this  you  do 
in  your  Agricultural  Course. 

WAYNE  CANFIELD 
'  City  Hall,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. 


PAID   FOR   HIS   COURSE   WITH   15  HENS 

WILBUR  H.  DRESHER,  Jeddo,  Pa.,  writes  that  he  has  been 
able,  through  the  knowledge  gained  from  our  Poultry 
Farming  Course,  to  make  15  hens  pay  the  price  of  his 
Course  in  less  than  1  year.  He  praises  the  Schools  for 
teaching  him  how  to  reduce  his  feed  bills  through  scien- 
tific feeding,  and  for  showing  him  how  to  take  care  of 
the  health  of  his  flock. 

LABORER  BECOMES  SUPERINTENDENT 
F.  B.  OLIVER,  Smithville  Flats,  N.  Y:  "I  have  been 
employed  in  the  poultry  business  nearly  the  entire  time 
since  I  enrolled  in  the  I.C.S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming 
Course  and  my  monthly  salary  has  been  substantially 
increased.  I  have  likewise  advanced  from  a  farm  laborer 
to  superintendent  of  a  poultry  plant.  My  Course  has 
been  so  very  beneficial  to  me  that  I  intend  to  enroll  for 
the  Agricultural  Course." 

PRAISES    COURSE 

H.  S.  FERGUSON,  Manager,  Deep  Fork  Dairy,  Okmulgee, 
Okla.:  "I  have  taken  a  Course  in  Soil  Improvement, 
Farm  Crops,  Livestock  and  Dairying  with  the  Interna- 
tional Correspondence  Schools  and  can  truly  recommend 
same  to  any  one  who  wishes  to  take  up  such  a  Course. 
I  owe  what  I  am  to  the  Course  and  am  sure  any  one  may 
be  benefited  the  same  as  myself.  It  does  not  require  a 
college  education  to  take  a  Course  with  this  School,  as 
they  are  willing  to  help  you  with  anything  you  do  not 
fully  understand.  Give  them  a  trial  and  be  convinced." 

NOW  PROPRIETOR 

RAY  L.  CHAMBERLIN,  South  Road,  Orange,  Mass.,  was 
earning  a  small  salary  when  he  enrolled  for  the  Com- 
plete Poultry  Course.  Since  receiving  his  Diploma  he 
has  become  manager  and  half  owner  of  the  Wyolette 
Poultry  Yards.  He  declares  that  the  lessons  on  diseases 
and  enemies  of  poultry  are  worth  the  price  of  the  whole 
Course;  also,  that  the  lesson  on  poultry  feeding  has 
made  a  big  increase  in  his  egg  yields. 

NOW   MANAGER 

WM.  M.  FRESHLEY,  Madison,  Ohio,  declares  that  he  has 
gained  considerable  help  from  his  I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming 
Course.  He  is  now  proprietor  of  the  Silver  Campine 
Farm.  He  recommends  the  Course  to  poultrymen  as  well 
as  to  beginners. 


Salary  More  Than 
Doubled 


.  A.  BAKER,  Proprietor      F.W.  EASTMAN,  Manager 
P.  O.  Box,  2898  Greensboro 

Boston,  Mass.  Vermont 


BAKER  FARM,  GREENSBORO,  VERMONT 
Pure  Bred  Holstein  Cattle 


At  the  time  I  enrolled  with  the  I.C.S. 
I  was  working  as  a  farm  hand.  In  two 
years'  time  my  present  position  came  to  me 
at  a  salary  more  than  twice  what  I  was 
earning  when  I  enrolled  and  a  share  in  the 
profits  besides.  I  cannot  recommend  the 
I.C.S.  too  highly.  I  have  two  students  of 
the  School  in  my  employ  and  both,  I  feel 
sure,  will  succeed.  F.  W.  EASTMAN 


HIS  COURSE  BROUGHT  SUCCESS 
OBLETON  R.  REID,  Lothair,  Ky. :  "I  have  been  en- 
gaged in  the  poultry  business  for  some  years,  without 
much  success  at  first.  Every  year  I  would  lose  from  200 
to  300  young  chickens.  I  was  just  stumbling  along  in 
the  dark.  Then  I  enrolled  for  yqiir  Complete  Poultry 
Course.  I  consider  this  the  best  investment  I  ever  made 
and  advise  any  person  who  enters  the  poultry  business 
to  take  a  Course  from  the  I.C.S.  first.  The  knowledge 
that  I  have  gained  from  your  instruction  has  put  me  on 
the  road  to  success.  Instead  of  heavy  losses  I  have  this 
year,  up  to  this  time,  lost  only  eight  or  ten  chicks,  and 
I  have  now  (June  9th)  about  four  Hundred  broilers  ready 
for  market." 


FOUND  COURSE  A  MONEY  SAVER 

ERNEST  STARTUP,  840  Whitney  Ave.,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
began  his  I.C.S.  studies  while  employed  as  a  butler.  He 
writes:  "Having  kept  a  small  flock  of  fowls  as  a  side 
line  with  some  degree  of  success,  I  became  determined  to 
start  a  poultry  farm  of  my  own.  In  order  to  obtain  more 
knowledge  on  the  subject  I  enrolled  for  the  Special 
Poultry  Course.  Now,  although  only  half  through  the 
Course,  I  am  more  than  delighted  that  I  had  sense 
enough  to  enroll.  I  find  the  Instruction  Papers  full  of 
the  very  things  one  wants  to  know  and  they  clearly 
show  that  the  secret  of  success  is  nothing  more  than 
common  sense  and  right  methods.  I  honestly  believe 
that  had  I  started  a  poultry  farm  without  taking  this 
Course,  I  would  have  lost  more  money  in  the  first  week 
than  I  have  paid  for  the  Course." 


ADDED  $500  PROFIT 

T.  E.  CASTLE,  Virginia  City,  Mont.:  "At  the  time  I 
enrolled  with  the  International  Correspondence  Schools 
for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course,  I  was  conducting  a 
small  poultry  plant  as  a  side  issue  to  my  business  of 
editing  and  managing  a  country  newspaper.  I  had  been 
handling  poultry  for  a  number  of  years  and  thought  I 
was  pretty  well  versed  in  the  intricacies  of  the  profes- 
sion, until  I  took  up  the  study  of  my  Course.  I  have 
learned  more  than  I  ever  thought  I  knew  before  and 
have  added  $500  to  my  profits  as  proprietor  of  the  Castle 
Hennery.  It  makes  no  difference  how  much  one  may 
know  of  the  poultry  business,  if  he  will  study  your 
Course  and  apply  its  teachings  he  must  necessarily  make 
his  business  a  success." 

9 


Found  His  Course 
Profitable 

HARRY  L.  GOODWIN,  Farmington,  Me.,  was 
a  printer  43  years  old  when  he  enrolled  with 
the  I.  C.  S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course. 
At  that  time  he  was  interested  in  poultry 
and  had  been  for  years  a  writer  for  the  press. 
He  says  that  his  Course  has  enabled  him  to 
secure  much  better  results  with  Barred  Rocks, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Indian  Runner  Ducks 
than  he  had  formerly  been  able  to  attain. 
During  the  past  year  he  has  written  61  articles 
for  publication  in  farming  and  poultry  jour- 
nals, for  which  he  is  receiving  payment,  thereby 
considerably  increasing  his  income.  He  feels 
that  his  Course  has  already  paid  for  itself  in 
more  ways  than  one,  and  that  it  has  been  a 
very  profitable  investment. 


10 


HIS  MOST  SATISFACTORY  INVESTMENT 

MARTIN  J.  ROONEY,  408  S.  Ohio  St.,  Butte,  Mont.: 
"The  I.C.S.  Course  in  Poultry  Farming  is  thorough  in 
every  particular.  I  can  honestly  say  that  I  consider  the 
price  I  paid  for  the  Course  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
investments  I  ever  made." 


WORTH  FIVE  TIMES  ITS  COST 

GEORGE  A.  VAN  VLECK,  Hollis,  L.  I.,  N.  Y.:     "If  I  had 

faid  five  times  the  price  of  your  Poultry  Farming  Course, 
would  consider  it  one  of  my  best  investments,  since  it 
has  enabled  me  to  get  such  results  from  my  flock.  I  am 
now  part  owner  of  the  Hillside  Poultry  Yards.  No  one 
needs,  to  make  mistakes  for  lack  of  knowledge  who  has 
"mastered  your  Course." 

NOW  MANAGER 

ALBERT  E.  EDWARDS,  c/o  The  Davidson  Farm,  R.  F.  D. 
No.  1,  Jermyn,  Pa.:  "Although  I  left  school  at  the  age  of 
eleven  to  work  in  a  grocery  store,  I  had  no  difficulty  in 
mastering  your  Poultry  Farming  Course.  Without  the 
knowledge  I  have  obtained  from  it,  I  could  not  have  taken 
the  responsibility  of  handling  6,000  chicks  at  one  time, 
ranging  from  two  days  to  three  months,  in  a  colony  system. 

Any  one  who  is  in  the  business,  or  intends  to  go  into  it, 
should  take  the  Course,  since  he  could  save  enough  from 
his  feed  bill  in  a  year  to  pay  for  it,  besides  producing 
better  stock  for  better  prices.  I  was  employed  as  a  carpet 
weaver  on  piece  work.  I  am  now  the  baby-chick  man- 
ager on  the  C.  P.  Davidson  farm." 

THE  BEST  MONEY  HE  EVER  SPENT 

CHAS.  H.  CARROLL,  71  Clark  St.,  Auburn,  N.  Y.:  "Al- 
though I  was  raised  on  a  large  farm  where  we  kept  fowls, 
I  felt  the  need  of  your  Poultry  Farming  Course.  Since 
receiving  my  Diploma  I  can  truly  say  that  it  was  the  best 
money  I  ever  spent,  as  I  can  now  manage  any  poultry 
farm  with  assurance  of  success." 


WORTH  MORE  THAN  SEVEN  YEARS'  EXPERIENCE 

FRED.  BUSSE,  Carlstadt,  N.  J.:  "I  have  had  seven  years' 
experience  in  the  raising  of  poultry  and  I  find  that  I  have 
learned  more  in  three  months  from  your  Poultry  Farming 
Course  than  I  found  out  in  the  whole  seven  years  pre- 
vious. I  recommend  the  Course  as  a  great  help  to  any  one 
raising  poultry  whether  on  a  large  or  small  scale." 

11 


The  Man  Who  Raised  the 
$100,000  Hen 

Greensboro,  Caroline  County,  Maryland 
EGLANTINE  FARM  PRODUCTS 

(Trade  Mark) 

I  am  glad  to  say  that  it  was  my  good 
fortune  to  have  enrolled  three  years  ago  as 
a  student  in  your  Poultry  Farming  Course. 
The  education  gained  from  this  study 
fitted  me  for  the  position  of  head  poultry- 
man  at  Eglantine  Farm.  Since  coming 
here  I  have  had  charge  at  all  times  of  the 
poultry  department.  I  have  looked  after 
the  mating  of  the  fowls,  the  incubating  of 
the  eggs,  and  the  rearing  of  the  chicks. 
It  was  my  good  fortune  to  select  the  pul- 
lets of  our  own  breeding  that  have  done 
so  remarkably  well  in  the  North  American 
Egg-Laying  Contest. 

FRANK  VADAKIN, 

Head  Poultryman,   Eglantine  Farms, 
Greensboro,   Md. 


12 


The  Best  Source 

BROOKVALE  FARM 

The  Home  of  Burr's 
WHITE  ORPINGTONS 

G.  M.  BURR,  Proprietor        MESHOPPEN,  PA. 

It  gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  the 
great  assistance  your  thorough  Course  of 
Instruction  in  Poultry  Farming  has  been 
to  me.  I  had  made  several  attempts  to 
establish  a  poultry  business,  but  met  with 
many  discouragements,  and  it  was  not 
until  I  had  mastered  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  poultry  raising  that  I  met  with 
any  gratifying  degree  of  success.  I  have 
now  a  well-established  and  successful 
poultry  business,  and  was  the  winner  of  a 
sixth  prize  in  the  Cyphers  Company's  first 
annual  contest  of  successful  poultry  grow- 
ers. I  am  using  on  my  plant  the  Inter- 
national Sanitary  Hover.  I  have  had  ex- 
cellent success  with  it,  and,  in  my  opinion, 
it  is  superior  to  any  other  brooder  made. 
As  a  breeder  of  single-comb  White  Orping- 
tons, I  find  my  I.C.S.  Course  full  of  valu- 
able information  and  practical  instruction 
for  all  phases  of  the  work.  I  know  that 
any  one  going  into  the  poultry  business 
needs  such  instruction  to  make  a  success 
of  it,  as  in  my  own  case. 

G.  M.  BURR 


13 


Considers  Course  a  Valu- 
able Investment 

I  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  not 
only  for  the  value  of  your  Poultry  Course 
but  also  of  the  interest  and  personal  at- 
tention given  the  student.  For  several 
years  I  have  considered  myself  a  compe- 
tent poultryman,  well  grounded  in  the 
business  from  incubation  to  the  show- 
room, the  market,  or  the  laying  house. 
After  a  year's  study  I  find  my  knowledge 
on  every  subject  broader  and  more  prac- 
tical. From  each  lesson  I  have  learned 
something  of  value  and  consider  that  any 
lesson,  taken  alone,  would  be  well  worth 
the  money  price  of  the  entire  Course.  As 
a  result  of  my  year's  application  of  the 
Poultry  Course  to  my  business,  I  find  in- 
creased egg  production,  marked  improve- 
ment in  my  laying  stock  and  breeders 
from  feeding  correctly.  I  am  breeding 
higher-quality  stock  and  on  the  whole  my 
plant  is  much  improved.  I  know  the 
Course  to  be  practical  and  workable.  It's 
scientific,  yet  easily  understood  by  a  plain 
man  like  myself.  By  my  own  experience 
I  know  it  can  be  applied  to  any  kind  of 
plant  with  benefit.  I  believe  it  to  be 
equally  valuable  to  the  beginner  and  the 
experienced.  It  has  made  and  saved  me 
many  times  its  cost.  I  wish  the  I.C.S.  all 
prosperity.  JACK  GORDON, 

571  Natoma  St.,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 


14 


CANNOT  FAIL  TO  SUCCEED 

BERT  WHITE,  Box  477,  Burlingame,  Kans. :  "Any  one 
interested  in  poultry  should  invest  in  the  Poultry  Farm- 
ing Course  with  the  I.C.S.  From  personal  experience  I 
can  say  that  any  one  that  will  study  the  Course  cannot 
fail  to  succeed.  Each  subject  is  well  explained  and 
easily  understood.  Since  I  began  to  study  my  Course 
the  profits  of  my  flock  are  rapidly  increasing." 

WORTH  MANY  TIMES  ITS   COST 

WILLIAM  F.  HALLOWAY,  River  Side  Farm,  Newark, 
Md. :  "I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the  faculty  of 
the  International  Correspondence  Schools  for  the  assis- 
tance they  have  rendered  me  and  the  interest  they  have 
taken  in  my  progress  and  success  since  I  enlisted  for  a 
Course  in  Soil  Improvement  and  Farm  Crops.  The  In- 
struction Papers  are  very  lucid  and  cover  every  point  of 
importance  with  the  utmost  care,  thereby  making  it 
easy  for  the  person  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  what  is 
taught.  I  think  any  one  who  contemplates  making  farm- 
ing his  life  vocation  will  find  an  International  Corre- 
spondence Schools'  Course  in  Agriculture  worth  many 
times  the  cost." 

HIS   COURSE   PROFITABLE 

J.  C.  THRENHAUSER,  Fair  Haven,  Pa.:  "I  cannot  ex- 
press my  appreciation  of  the  value  of  your  Poultry  Farm- 
ing Course,  since  the  benefits  derived  are  far  beyond  my 
anticipation.  Since  taking  your  Course  I  have  spent 
some  time  at  the  government  experiment  station.  Their 
course  in  some  respects  is  quite  like  yours,  but  it  is  not 
so  extensive  or  so  complete.  I  have  been  offered  two 

Positions  to  take  charge  of  poultry  farms,  both  of  which 
declined,  because   I  can  do  much  better  by  caring  for 
my   own  poultry." 

PUTS  PRICELESS  VALUE  ON  COURSE 
RALPH  W.  WESTON,  Box  26,  Honolulu,  Hawaii :  "I 
can  say  in  all  faith  that  the  methods  and  instruction  set 
forth  in  the  I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming  Course  are  of  price- 
less value.  I  have  applied  these  methods  in  a  small  way 
and  find  the  results  as  stated.  The  Course  is  worth 
many  times  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money." 

EARNINGS  INCREASED— HEALTH  IMPROVED 

ERNEST  BROWETT,  R.  F.  D.  4,  Pitt  Poultry  Farm, 
McDonald,  Pa.:  "When  enrolling  I  was  a  coal  miner. 
Now  I  am  managing  the  poultry  farm  of  F.  A.  Thomassy. 
The  Course  has  brought  me  better  health  and  earnings. 
No  one  should  try  to  raise  a  small  or  large  flock  of 
poultry  without  an  I.C.S.  Course." 

15 


Dollars  and  Cents 
Knowledge 

Having  been  a  subscriber  to  your  Mechan- 
ical Course  in  former  years,  I  was  pleased  to 
learn  that  you  were  issuing  a  Course  in  Poultry 
Farming.  Knowing  the  need  of  information 
on  this  subject,  I  subscribed  for  the  Course. 

In  reading  and  studying  the  first  Instruction 
Papers,  I  began  to  realize  the  greatness  and 
perfection  of  the  Course.  Step  by  step  the 
student  is  led  to  proficiency  and  also  I  find  that 
each  step  has  been  carefully  examined  before- 
hand from  one  standpoint — the  question  of  dol- 
lars and  cents.  In  this  lies  the  crux  of  the  mat- 
ter, the  secret  of  success. 

THOMAS  H.  POLLARD 
916  Eighth  Ave.,  Brooklyn,  N,  Y, 


16 


I.C.S.  Course  a  Necessity 
Not  a  Luxury 


Secretary,  Twin  Valley  Poultry  Association 
and  American  Partridge  Rock  Club 

Breeder  of 

IMPERIAL  PARTRIDGE  PLYMOUTH 
ROCKS 


In  speaking  of  your  Poultry  Course,  will 
say  that  it  has  no  equal.  It  is  not  "Can 
you  afford  it?"  but  "Can  you  afford  to  do 
without  it?"  No  one  will  make  a  mistake 
in  taking  an  I.C.S.  Poultry  Course.  I  owe 
my  success  to  your  Poultry  Course. 

ROBERT  H.  RAMSEY, 

Lewisburg,  Ohio 


17 


Praise  From  Farm  Owner 

Permit  me  to  express  my  gratefulness  to 
you  for  the  I.C.S.  chemical  analysis  of  my 
soil.  In  keeping  with  the  knowledge  that 
I  gained  from  the  studies  of  the  I.C.S. 
Agricultural  Courses,  the  analysis  of  my 
soil  has  made  it  more  clear  to  me  that  my 
soil  is  lacking  in  the  plant  foods  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium, and  organic  matter,  and  also  gave 
me  the  quantity  of  these  foods  that  should 
be  added  to  the  acre  for  profitable  results. 
In  addition  to  these,  it  proved  that  my 
soil  is  not  acid,  and  saved  me  of  the  ex- 
penditure for  30  tons  of  lime,  which  I 
thought  my  soil  needed.  I  left  the  farm  in 
1900  after  working  5  years  as  a  farm  hand, 
but  returned  again  3  years  ago,  taking  up 
farming  for  myself.  It  was  then,  seeing 
my  deficiency,  I  immediately  enrolled  for 
the  Agricultural  Course  of  the  I.C.S.  I 
greatly  appreciate  the  time  spent  in  and 
the  understanding  received  by  studying 
these  Courses.  I  am  sure  half  of  my  suc- 
cess would  have  been  lost  had  I  done 
other  than  studying. 

JAS.  H.  DOUGLAS, 
1511  Laurel  St.,  N.  S.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


18 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


3  1934 


469891 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


